Online Shadow Education in Hong Kong: Perspectives from Secondary School Students and Private Tutors
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Published
Jul 30, 2022
Abstract
Based on the educational hierarchical reproduction theory and the MMI and EMI hypotheses, this paper discusses the impact of the tracking of general and vocational education at the secondary level on higher education opportunity equity among social classes. The study finds that increasing gross enrollment rates of both general high schools and secondary vocational schools can help improve the equity in admission opportunities of colleges and universities among social strata; expanding the share of general high school places by adjusting the structure of general and vocational tracks (that is, the general-vocational ratio) can effectively reduce the class disparities in college and university admission opportunities; neither the change in the scale nor in the structure of general and vocational tracks will contribute to alleviating class inequality in top university enrollment opportunities.
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Keywords
Shadow Education, Online Education, Secondary School
References
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Ball, S. J. (2016). Subjectivity as a site of struggle: Refusing neoliberalism? British Journal of Sociology of Education, 37(8):1129-1146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2015.1044072
Bray, T. M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-7757(01)00017-6
Bray, M. (2009). Confronting the shadow education system: What government policies for what private tutoring? UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14748460.2011.616327
Bray, M. (2011). The challenge of shadow education: Private tutoring and its implications for policy makers in the European Union. European Commission. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-012-9324-2
Bray, M. (2014). The impact of shadow education on student academic achievement: Why the research is inconclusive and what can be done about it. Asia Pacific Education Review, 15(3):381-389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-014-9326-9
Bray, M., & Kobakhidze, M. N. (2014). Measurement issues in research on shadow education: Challenges and pitfalls encountered in TIMSS and PISA. Comparative Education Review, 58(4):590-620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/677907
Bray, M., Kobakhidze, M. N., Zhang, W., & Liu, J. (2018). The hidden curriculum in a hidden marketplace: Relationships and values in Cambodia’s shadow education system. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 50(4):435-455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2018.1461932
Bregvadze, T. (2012). Analysing the shadows: Private tutoring as a descriptor of the education system in Georgia. International Education Studies, 5(6):80-89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n6p80
Buhagiar, M.A.,and Chetcuti, D.A. (2013). The private tuition phenomenon in Malta: Moving toward a fairer education system. In M. Bray, A.E. Mazawi and R.G. Sultana (Eds.), Private tutoring across the Mediterranean: Power dynamics and implications for learning and equity (pp.129-149). Sense. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-237-2_8
Bui, G., & Kong, A. (2019). Metacognitive instruction for peer review interaction in L2 writing. Journal of Writing Research, 11(2):338-390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2019.11.02.05
Carless, D. (2011). From testing to productive student learning: Implementing formative assessment in Confucian-heritage settings. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2011.632863
Chan, C., & Bray, M. (2014). Marketized private tutoring as a supplement to regular schooling: Liberal Studies and the shadow sector in Hong Kong secondary education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 46(3):361-388. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2014.883553
Cheng, C. H. R. (2021). Teaching method in shadow education: The impact of implementing a task cycle into supplementary lessons in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 10(6):218-225. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5353/th_b3020307
Christensen, L. B., Johnson, B., Turner, L. A., & Christensen, L. B. (2011). Research methods, design, and analysis. Pearson. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/PVP2006-ICPVT-11-94028
DeBell, M., & Chapman, C. (2006). Computer and internet use by students in 2003. National Center for Education Statistics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2003.1236472
Eng, R. (2019). The tutoring industry in Hong Kong: From the past four decades to the future. ECNU Review of Education, 2(1):77-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531119840857
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1):1-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6224/JN.61.3.105
Gibbs, G. R. (2018). Analyzing qualitative data (6thed.). United State: Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15766/mep_2374-8265.227
Hargreaves, A., & Fullan., M. (2020). Professional capital after the pandemic: Revisiting and revising classic understandings of teachers’ work. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4):327-336. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-06-2020-0039
Harris, A., & Jones, M. (2020). COVID-19 –School leadership in disruptive times. School, Leadership & Management, 40(4):243-247. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2020.1811479
Horrell, B., Stephens, C., & Breheny, M. (2015). Online research with informal caregivers: Opportunities and challenges. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 12:258-271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2015.1040318
Kagan, D., Alpert, G. F., & Fire, M. (2020). Zooming into video conferencing privacy and security threats. United State: Mark Allen Group. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1353-4858(99)90040-5
Kim, Y. C. (2016). Good and bad effects of Hakwon education. In Shadow education and the curriculum and culture of schooling in South Korea (pp.153-176). Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-51324-3_7
Kobakhidze, M. N. (2014). Corruption risks of private tutoring: Case of Georgia. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4):455-475. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2014.963506
Liu, J. (2012). Does cram schooling matter? Who goes to cram schools? Evidence from Taiwan. International Journal of Educational Development, 32:46-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.01.014
Longhurst, R. (2003). Semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Key Methods in Geography, 3(2):143-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470712740.app2
Loyalka, P., & Zakharov, A. (2016). Does shadow education help students prepare for college? Evidence from Russia. International Journal of Educational Development, 49:22-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.01.008
Netolicky, D. M. (2020). School leadership during a pandemic: Navigating tensions. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4):391-395. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-05-2020-0017
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. (2013). PISA 2012 results in focus: What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know. Paris, France. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264201118-sum-de
Paiva, V., Guimaraes, M. E.,Paiva, E., Durao, A. V., & De Paula, V.M.P. (1997). Dinamica e funcoes da escolaperifericaemmutacao. Terra Plural, 2(2):227-239. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5212/TerraPlural.v.2i2.227239
Piao, H., & Hwang, H. (2021). Shadow education policy in Korea during the Covid-19 pandemic. ECNU Review of Education, 4(3):652-666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20965311211013825
Robson, J. M. (2011). Collected works of John Stuart Mill VII;System of logic: Ratiocinativeand inductive, vol. A. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139149839.001
Sen, A. (2009). Introduction: Primary schooling in West Bengal. In K. Rana (Coordinator), The Pratichi education report II: Primary education in West Bengal – Changes and challenges (pp. 9-18). Pratichi Trust. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73612-9_1
Shen, H. (2008). An investigation on factors influencing private supplementary tutoring at the level of compulsory education. Economics of Education Research (Beida), 6:1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13596740600769123
South China Morning Post. (2020, February 26). Coronavirus boosts fortunes of e-learning providers, while Hong Kong’s private tutoring industry struggles. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/3052401/coronavirus-boosts-fortunes-e-learning-providers-while-hong?module=perpetual_scroll&pgtype=article&campaign=3052401
Tenzek, K. E. (2018). The SAGE encyclopedia of communication research methods. SAGE Publications Inc. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411.n66
The Guardian. (2020, May 21). The Zoom boom: How video-calling became a blessing – and a curse. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/may/21/the-zoom-boom-how-video-calling-became-a-blessing-and-a-curse
Terry, G., Hayfield, N., Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2017). Thematic analysis. The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2:17-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483384436.n1
UNESCO. (2012). EFA [Education for All] global monitoring report 2012: Youth and skills – putting education to work. UNESCO. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(03)00099-3
Xue, H., & Ding, X. (2008). An empirical study on private tutoring for students in urban China. Economics of Education Research (Beida), 6:1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247820981820
Yung, K. W. H. (2015). Learning English in the shadows: Understanding Chinese learners’ experiences of private tutoring. TESOL Quarterly, 49(4):707-732. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.193
Yung, K. W. H. (2020). Problematising students’ preference for video-recorded classes in shadow education. Educational Studies, 6 (1):1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1814697
Yung, K. W. H., & Bray, M. (2016). Shadow education: Features, expansion and Implications .In Making sense of education in post-handover Hong Kong (pp.107-123). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03982-0_7
Yung, K. W. H., & Yuan, R. (2020). ‘The most popular star-tutor of English’: Discursive construction of tutor identities in shadow education. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 41(1):153-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2018.1488241
Zhan, S., Bray, M., Wang, D., Lykins, C., & Kwo, O. (2013). The effectiveness of private tutoring: Students’ perceptions in comparison with mainstream schooling in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14(4):495-509. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-013-9276-7
Zhao, Y. (2020). COVID-19 as a catalyst for educational change. Prospects, 49:29-33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09477-y
Ball, S. J. (2016). Subjectivity as a site of struggle: Refusing neoliberalism? British Journal of Sociology of Education, 37(8):1129-1146. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2015.1044072
Bray, T. M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-7757(01)00017-6
Bray, M. (2009). Confronting the shadow education system: What government policies for what private tutoring? UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14748460.2011.616327
Bray, M. (2011). The challenge of shadow education: Private tutoring and its implications for policy makers in the European Union. European Commission. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-012-9324-2
Bray, M. (2014). The impact of shadow education on student academic achievement: Why the research is inconclusive and what can be done about it. Asia Pacific Education Review, 15(3):381-389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-014-9326-9
Bray, M., & Kobakhidze, M. N. (2014). Measurement issues in research on shadow education: Challenges and pitfalls encountered in TIMSS and PISA. Comparative Education Review, 58(4):590-620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/677907
Bray, M., Kobakhidze, M. N., Zhang, W., & Liu, J. (2018). The hidden curriculum in a hidden marketplace: Relationships and values in Cambodia’s shadow education system. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 50(4):435-455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2018.1461932
Bregvadze, T. (2012). Analysing the shadows: Private tutoring as a descriptor of the education system in Georgia. International Education Studies, 5(6):80-89. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n6p80
Buhagiar, M.A.,and Chetcuti, D.A. (2013). The private tuition phenomenon in Malta: Moving toward a fairer education system. In M. Bray, A.E. Mazawi and R.G. Sultana (Eds.), Private tutoring across the Mediterranean: Power dynamics and implications for learning and equity (pp.129-149). Sense. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-237-2_8
Bui, G., & Kong, A. (2019). Metacognitive instruction for peer review interaction in L2 writing. Journal of Writing Research, 11(2):338-390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2019.11.02.05
Carless, D. (2011). From testing to productive student learning: Implementing formative assessment in Confucian-heritage settings. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2011.632863
Chan, C., & Bray, M. (2014). Marketized private tutoring as a supplement to regular schooling: Liberal Studies and the shadow sector in Hong Kong secondary education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 46(3):361-388. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2014.883553
Cheng, C. H. R. (2021). Teaching method in shadow education: The impact of implementing a task cycle into supplementary lessons in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 10(6):218-225. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5353/th_b3020307
Christensen, L. B., Johnson, B., Turner, L. A., & Christensen, L. B. (2011). Research methods, design, and analysis. Pearson. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/PVP2006-ICPVT-11-94028
DeBell, M., & Chapman, C. (2006). Computer and internet use by students in 2003. National Center for Education Statistics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2003.1236472
Eng, R. (2019). The tutoring industry in Hong Kong: From the past four decades to the future. ECNU Review of Education, 2(1):77-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531119840857
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1):1-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6224/JN.61.3.105
Gibbs, G. R. (2018). Analyzing qualitative data (6thed.). United State: Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15766/mep_2374-8265.227
Hargreaves, A., & Fullan., M. (2020). Professional capital after the pandemic: Revisiting and revising classic understandings of teachers’ work. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4):327-336. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-06-2020-0039
Harris, A., & Jones, M. (2020). COVID-19 –School leadership in disruptive times. School, Leadership & Management, 40(4):243-247. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2020.1811479
Horrell, B., Stephens, C., & Breheny, M. (2015). Online research with informal caregivers: Opportunities and challenges. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 12:258-271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2015.1040318
Kagan, D., Alpert, G. F., & Fire, M. (2020). Zooming into video conferencing privacy and security threats. United State: Mark Allen Group. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1353-4858(99)90040-5
Kim, Y. C. (2016). Good and bad effects of Hakwon education. In Shadow education and the curriculum and culture of schooling in South Korea (pp.153-176). Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-51324-3_7
Kobakhidze, M. N. (2014). Corruption risks of private tutoring: Case of Georgia. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4):455-475. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2014.963506
Liu, J. (2012). Does cram schooling matter? Who goes to cram schools? Evidence from Taiwan. International Journal of Educational Development, 32:46-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2011.01.014
Longhurst, R. (2003). Semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Key Methods in Geography, 3(2):143-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470712740.app2
Loyalka, P., & Zakharov, A. (2016). Does shadow education help students prepare for college? Evidence from Russia. International Journal of Educational Development, 49:22-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.01.008
Netolicky, D. M. (2020). School leadership during a pandemic: Navigating tensions. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 5(3/4):391-395. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-05-2020-0017
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. (2013). PISA 2012 results in focus: What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know. Paris, France. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264201118-sum-de
Paiva, V., Guimaraes, M. E.,Paiva, E., Durao, A. V., & De Paula, V.M.P. (1997). Dinamica e funcoes da escolaperifericaemmutacao. Terra Plural, 2(2):227-239. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5212/TerraPlural.v.2i2.227239
Piao, H., & Hwang, H. (2021). Shadow education policy in Korea during the Covid-19 pandemic. ECNU Review of Education, 4(3):652-666. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20965311211013825
Robson, J. M. (2011). Collected works of John Stuart Mill VII;System of logic: Ratiocinativeand inductive, vol. A. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139149839.001
Sen, A. (2009). Introduction: Primary schooling in West Bengal. In K. Rana (Coordinator), The Pratichi education report II: Primary education in West Bengal – Changes and challenges (pp. 9-18). Pratichi Trust. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73612-9_1
Shen, H. (2008). An investigation on factors influencing private supplementary tutoring at the level of compulsory education. Economics of Education Research (Beida), 6:1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13596740600769123
South China Morning Post. (2020, February 26). Coronavirus boosts fortunes of e-learning providers, while Hong Kong’s private tutoring industry struggles. Available at: https://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/3052401/coronavirus-boosts-fortunes-e-learning-providers-while-hong?module=perpetual_scroll&pgtype=article&campaign=3052401
Tenzek, K. E. (2018). The SAGE encyclopedia of communication research methods. SAGE Publications Inc. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411.n66
The Guardian. (2020, May 21). The Zoom boom: How video-calling became a blessing – and a curse. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/may/21/the-zoom-boom-how-video-calling-became-a-blessing-and-a-curse
Terry, G., Hayfield, N., Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2017). Thematic analysis. The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2:17-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483384436.n1
UNESCO. (2012). EFA [Education for All] global monitoring report 2012: Youth and skills – putting education to work. UNESCO. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(03)00099-3
Xue, H., & Ding, X. (2008). An empirical study on private tutoring for students in urban China. Economics of Education Research (Beida), 6:1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247820981820
Yung, K. W. H. (2015). Learning English in the shadows: Understanding Chinese learners’ experiences of private tutoring. TESOL Quarterly, 49(4):707-732. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.193
Yung, K. W. H. (2020). Problematising students’ preference for video-recorded classes in shadow education. Educational Studies, 6 (1):1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1814697
Yung, K. W. H., & Bray, M. (2016). Shadow education: Features, expansion and Implications .In Making sense of education in post-handover Hong Kong (pp.107-123). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03982-0_7
Yung, K. W. H., & Yuan, R. (2020). ‘The most popular star-tutor of English’: Discursive construction of tutor identities in shadow education. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 41(1):153-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2018.1488241
Zhan, S., Bray, M., Wang, D., Lykins, C., & Kwo, O. (2013). The effectiveness of private tutoring: Students’ perceptions in comparison with mainstream schooling in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 14(4):495-509. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-013-9276-7
Zhao, Y. (2020). COVID-19 as a catalyst for educational change. Prospects, 49:29-33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-020-09477-y
How to Cite
Cheng, C. H. (2022). Online Shadow Education in Hong Kong: Perspectives from Secondary School Students and Private Tutors. Best Evidence in Chinese Education, 11(2), 1477–1497. https://doi.org/10.15354/bece.22.or063
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