COVID-19: Facts and Recommendations from A to Z
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Abstract
Since the first case of COVID-19 was reported in late 2019, the virus has been filling almost every corner of the earth. The world suddenly woke up in a hurry, and began to surround and control SARS-CoV-2 on a large scale. Since then, the world has entered a state of lockdown. This task force reviewed from every aspect involved in the occurrence, development and treatment of COVID-19. Although no effective treatments exist and many areas require further study at length regarding the virus and the diseases caused by it, all the medical care implemented currently reflects the compassionate control of the disease. Whether it is the development of effective drugs or vaccines, the occurrence of COVID-19 pandemic sounded the alarm for humans. It is time to seriously think about the disease prevention system we have built so far and the next catastrophic epidemic that may come in the near future. While the virus is rapidly mutating, whether the development of medical science is catching up fast enough and finding effective countermeasures is a question worthy of serious consideration.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, Medical System, Human Catastrophe, Future
2. World Health Organization. Naming the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the virus that causes it. Available at: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/technical-guidance/naming-the-coronavirus-disease-. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
3. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Situation Dashboard. Available at: https://experience.arcgis.com/experience/685d0ace521648f8a5beeeee1b9125cd. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
4. de Jesus EG. There’s no evidence the coronavirus jumped from pangolins to people, but the animals do host viruses similar to SARS-CoV-2. MARCH 26, 2020. Available at: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/covid-19-no-evidence-coronavirus-jumped-pangolin-people. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
5. Zhang C, Zheng W, Huang X, Bell EW, Zhou X, Zhang Y. Protein structure and sequence reanalysis of 2019-nCoV genome refutes snakes as its intermediate host and the unique similarity between its spike protein insertions and HIV-1. J Proteom Res 2020; DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00129.
6. Science Daily. COVID-19 coronavirus epidemic has a natural origin. March 17, 2020. Available at: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/03/200317175442.htm. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
7. de Wilde AH, Snijder EJ, Kikkert M, van Hemert MJ. Host Factors in Coronavirus Replication. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2018;419:1-42.
8. Imai Y, Kuba K, Ohto-Nakanishi T, Penninger JM. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in disease pathogenesis. Circ J 2010; 74(3):405-410.
9. Cascella M, Rajnik M, Cuomo A, Dulebohn SC, Di Napoli R. Features, Evaluation and Treatment Coronavirus (COVID-19). 2020 Mar 20. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan.
10. Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF. The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Med 2020; DOI: 10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9.
11. Harrison SC. Viral membrane fusion. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2008; 15(7):690-698.
12. Ahmed SF, Quadeer AA, McKay MR. Preliminary identification of potential vaccine targets for the COVID-19 Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Based on SARS-CoV immunological studies. Viruses 2020; 12(3):E254.
13. Yan R, Zhang Y, Li Y, Xia L, Guo Y, Zhou Q. Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2. Science 2020; 367(6485):1444-1448.
14. Spike glycoprotein S. Available at: http://new.robetta.org/results.php?id=15652#pdb_download1. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
15. McBride R, van Zyl M, Fielding BC. The coronavirus nucleocapsid is a multifunctional protein. Viruses 2014; 6(8):2991-3018.
16. Bai Y, Yao L, Wei T, Tian F, Jin DY, Chen L, Wang M. Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19. JAMA 2020; e202565.
17. Wang J, Du G. COVID-19 may transmit through aerosol. Ir J Med Sci 2020 Mar 24:1-2.
18. van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Williamson BN, Tamin A, Harcourt JL, Thornburg NJ, Gerber SI, Lloyd-Smith JO, de Wit E, Munster VJ. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med 2020; NEJMc2004973.
19. Quinn A. ‘We Should Grieve’: Infant Becomes Youngest COVID-19 Death in Illinois. Available at: https://www.thedailybeast.com/infant-becomes-youngest-coronavirus-death-in-illinois. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
20. Vuille-dit-Bille RN, Camargo SM, Emmenegger L, Sasse T, Kummer E, Jando J, Hamie QM, Meier CF, Hunziker S, Forras-Kaufmann Z, Kuyumcu S, Fox M, Schwizer W, Fried M, Lindenmeyer M, Götze O, Verrey F. Human intestine luminal ACE2 and amino acid transporter expression increased by ACE-inhibitors. Amino Acids 2015; 47(4):693-705.
21. Schouten LR, van Kaam AH, Kohse F, Veltkamp F, Bos LD, de Beer FM, van Hooijdonk RT, Horn J, Straat M, Witteveen E, Glas GJ, Wieske L, van Vught LA, Wiewel MA, Ingelse SA, Cortjens B, van Woensel JB, Bos AP, Walther T, Schultz MJ, Wösten-van Asperen RM for the MARS consortium. Age-dependent differences in pulmonary host responses in ARDS: a prospective observational cohort study. Ann Intensive Care 2019; 9(1):55.
22. Xie X, Chen J, Wang X, Zhang F, Liu Y. Age- And Gender-Related Difference of ACE2 Expression in Rat Lung. Life Sci 2006; 78(19):2166-2171.
23. COVID-19: Racial Equity & Social Justice Resources. https://www.racialequitytools.org/fundamentals/resource-lists/resources-addressing-covid-19-with-racial-equity-lens. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
24. Age, Sex, Existing Conditions of COVID-19 Cases and Deaths. February 29, 2020. Available at: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/coronavirus-age-sex-demographics/. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
25. Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y, Liang WH, Ou CQ, He JX, Liu L, Shan H, Lei CL, Hui DSC, Du B, Li LJ, Zeng G, Yuen KY, Chen RC, Tang CL, Wang T, Chen PY, Xiang J, Li SY, Wang JL, Liang ZJ, Peng YX, Wei L, Liu Y, Hu YH, Peng P, Wang JM, Liu JY, Chen Z, Li G, Zheng ZJ, Qiu SQ, Luo J, Ye CJ, Zhu SY, Zhong NS; China Medical Treatment Expert Group for Covid-19. Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med 2020; 0:NEJMoa2002032. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2002032.
26. Lauer SA, Grantz KH, Bi Q, Jones FK, Zheng Q, Meredith HR, Azman AS, Reich NG, Lessler J. The incubation period of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from publicly reported confirmed cases: Estimation and application. Ann Intern Med 2020; M20-0504.
27. Han R, Huang L, Jiang H, Dong J, Peng H, Zhang D. Early clinical and CT manifestations of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pneumonia. Am J Roentgenol 2020; 1-6.
28. Thomas-Rüddel D, Winning J, Dickmann P, Ouart D, Kortgen A, Janssens U, Bauer M. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): update for anesthesiologists and intensivists March 2020. Anaesthesist 2020; doi: 10.1007/s00101-020-00760-3.
29. Wang S, Guo L, Chen L, Liu W, Cao Y, Zhang J, Feng L. A case report of neonatal COVID-19 infection in China. Clin Infect Dis 2020; ciaa225.
30. Rasmussen SA, Smulian JC, Lednicky JA, Wen TS, Jamieson DJ. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and pregnancy: What obstetricians need to know. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2020; doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2020.02.017.
31. Symptoms of Coronavirus. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
32. Xie C, Jiang L, Huang G, Pu H, Gong B, Lin H, Ma S, Chen X, Long B, Si G, Yu H, Jiang L, Yang X, Shi Y, Yang Z. Comparison of different samples for 2019 novel coronavirus detection by nucleic acid amplification tests. Int J Infect Dis 2020; 93:264-267.
33. Xiong Z, Fu L, Zhou H, Liu JK, Wang AM, Huang Y, Huang X, Yi B, Wu J, Li CH, Quan J, Li M, Leng YS, Luo WJ, Hu CP, Liao WH. Construction and evaluation of a novel diagnosis process for 2019-Corona Virus Disease. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 2020; 100(0):E019.
34. Cheng H, Wang Y, Wang GQ. Organ-protective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and its effect on the prognosis of COVID-19. J Med Virol 2020; doi: 10.1002/jmv.25785.
35. Testing for COVID-19. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/symptoms-testing/testing.html. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
36. Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, Lu R, Han K, Wu G, Tan W. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens. JAMA 2020; e203786.
37. Dong X, Cao YY, Lu XX, Zhang JJ, Du H, Yan YQ, Akdis CA, Gao YD. Eleven faces of coronavirus disease 2019. Allergy 2020. doi: 10.1111/all.14289.
38. Zou L, Ruan F, Huang M , Liang L, Huang H, Hong Z, Yu J, Kang M, Song Y, Xia J, Guo Q, Song T, He J, Yen HL, Peiris M, Wu J. SARS-CoV-2 viral load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(12):1177-1179.
39. The Food and Drug Administration. Cellex qSARS-CoV-2 IgG/IgM Rapid Test. Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/136625/download. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
40. Kiernan RE, McPhee DA, Doherty RR. Quantitation of infectious human immunodeficiency virus using a modified plaque forming assay. J Virol Methods 1988; 22(2-3):303-308.
41. Jennifer R. Tisoncik,a Marcus J. Korth,a Cameron P. Simmons,b Jeremy Farrar,b Thomas R. Martin,c and Michael G. Katze. Into the Eye of the Cytokine Storm. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2012; 76(1):16-32.
42. Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, Qiu Y, Wang J, Liu Y, Wei Y, Xia J, Yu T, Zhang X, Zhang L. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. Lancet 2020; 395(10223):507-513.
43. Chen L, Liu HG, Liu W, Liu J, Liu K, Shang J, Deng Y, Wei S. Analysis of clinical features of 29 patients with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2020; 43(0):E005.
44. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, Zhang J, Wang B, Xiang H, Cheng Z, Xiong Y, Zhao Y, Li Y, Wang X, Peng Z. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 2020; e201585.
45. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X, Cheng Z, Yu T, Xia J, Wei Y, Wu W, Xie X, Yin W, Li H, Liu M, Xiao Y, Gao H, Guo L, Xie J, Wang G, Jiang R, Gao Z, Jin Q, Wang J, Cao B. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020; 395(10223):P497-P506.
46. Shi H, Han X, Jiang N, Cao Y, Alwalid O, Gu J, Fan Y, Zheng C. Radiological findings from 81 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 20(4):425-434.
47. Mehta P, McAuley DF, Brown M, Sanchez E, Tattersall RS, Manson JJ, on behalf of the HLH Across Speciality Collaboration, UK. COVID-19: Consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet 2020; 395(10229):1033-1034.
48. Randy Q. Cron, W. Winn Chatham. Don’t Forget the Host: COVID-19 Cytokine Storm. March 16, 2020. Available at: https://www.the-rheumatologist.org/article/dont-forget-the-host-covid-19-cytokine-storm/. Last accessed: April 5, 2020.
49. Dai WC, Zhang HW, Yu J, Xu HJ, Chen H, Luo SP, Zhang H, Liang LH, Wu XL, Lei Y, Lin F. CT Imaging and differential diagnosis of COVID-19. Can Assoc Radiol J 2020; 71(2):195-200.
50. Li Y, Xia L. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Role of chest CT in diagnosis and management. Am J Roentgenol 2020; 1-7.
51. Zhou S, Wang Y, Zhu T, Xia L. CT Features of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pneumonia in 62 Patients in Wuhan, China. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2020 Mar 5:1-8.
52. CT Sign Recognition and Rapid Diagnosis of New Coronary Pneumonia. Available at: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/DEvF3RL0lJTize6C09z0Zw. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
53. The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine. Compiled According to Clinical Experience. Handbook of COVID-19 Prevention and Treatment.
54. Lim J, Jeon S, Shin HY, Kim MJ, Seong YM, Lee WJ, Choe KW, Kang YM, Lee B, Park SJ. Case of the index patient who caused tertiary transmission of COVID-19 infection in Korea: The application of lopinavir/ritonavir for the treatment of COVID-19 infected pneumonia monitored by quantitative RT-PCR. J Korean Med Sci 2020; 35(6):e79.
55. Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D, Liu W, Wang J, Fan G, Ruan L, Song B, Cai Y, Wei M, Li X, Xia J, Chen N, Xiang J, Yu T, Bai T, Xie X, Zhang L, Li C, Yuan Y, Chen H, Li H, Huang H, Tu S, Gong F, Liu Y, Wei Y, Dong C, Zhou F, Gu X, Xu J, Liu Z, Zhang Y, Li H, Shang L, Wang K, Li K, Zhou X, Dong X, Qu Z, Lu S, Hu X, Ruan S, Luo S, Wu J, Peng L, Cheng F, Pan L, Zou J, Jia C, Wang J, Liu X, Wang S, Wu X, Ge Q, He J, Zhan H, Qiu F, Guo L, Huang C, Jaki T, Hayden FG, Horby PW, Zhang D, Wang C. A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe COVID-19. N Engl J Med 2020; doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001282.
56. Xu K, Cai H, Shen Y, Ni Q, Chen Y, Hu S, Li J, Wang H, Yu L, Huang H, Qiu Y, Wei G, Fang Q, Zhou J, Sheng J, Liang T, Li L. Management of corona virus disease-19 (COVID-19): the Zhejiang experience. Zhejiang Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2020; 49(1):0.
57. Deng L, Li C, Zeng Q, Liu X, Li X, Zhang H, Hong Z, Xia J. Arbidol combined with LPV/r versus LPV/r alone against Corona Virus Disease 2019: A retrospective cohort study. J Infect 2020; S0163-4453(20)30113-4.
58. Wang Z, Chen X, Lu Y, Chen F, Zhang W. Clinical characteristics and therapeutic procedure for four cases with 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia receiving combined Chinese and Western medicine treatment. Biosci Trends 2020; 14(1):64-68.
59. Wong YK, Yang J, He Y. Caution and clarity required in the use of chloroquine for COVID-19. Lancet Rheumotol 2020; DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/S2665-9913(20)30093-X
60. Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P, Hoang VT, Meddeb L, Mailhe M, Doudier B, Courjon J, Giordanengo V, Vieira VE, Dupont HT, Honoré S, Colson P, Chabrière E, La Scola B, Rolain JM, Brouqui P, Raoult D. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 105949. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949.
61. Chen C, Huang J, Cheng Z, Wu J, Chen S, Zhang Y, Chen B, Lu M, Luo Y, Zhang J, Yin P, Wang X. Favipiravir versus Arbidol for COVID-19: A randomized clinical trial. medRxiv 2020.03.17.20037432; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.17.20037432.
62. Ko WC, Rolain JM, Lee NY, Chen PL, Huang CT, Lee PI, Hsueh PR. Arguments in favour of remdesivir for treating SARS-CoV-2 infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2020; 105933.
63. Al-Tawfiq JA, Al-Homoud AH, Memish ZA. Remdesivir as a possible therapeutic option for the COVID-19. Travel Med Infect Dis 2020; 101615.
64. Wang M, Cao R, Zhang L, Yang X, Liu J, Xu M, Shi Z, Hu Z, Zhong W, Xiao G. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res 2020; 30(3):269-271.
65. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. Information for Clinicians on Therapeutic Options for COVID-19 Patients. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Availabel at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/therapeutic-options.html. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
66. Johnson & Johnson Services, Inc. Lack of evidence to support use of darunavir-based treatments for SARS-CoV-2. How We’re Mobilizing Our Resources to Help Find Solutions for Covid-19. Availabel at: https://www.jnj.com/lack-of-evidence-to-support-darunavir-based-hiv-treatments-for-coronavirus. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
67. ClinicalTrials.gov. Efficacy and Safety of Darunavir and Cobicistat for Treatment of Pneumonia Caused by 2019-nCoV (DACO-nCoV). NCT04252274. Availabel at: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04252274. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
68. Akaike T. Role of free radicals in viral pathogenesis and mutation. Rev Med Virol 2001; 11(2):87-101.
69. Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, Chandra N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. Pharmacogn Rev 2010; 4(8):118-126.
70. Ortolani O, Conti A, De Gaudio AR, Moraldi E, Cantini Q, Novelli G. The effect of glutathione and N-acetylcysteine on lipoperoxidative damage in patients with early septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161(6):1907-1911.
71. Galley HF, Lowes DA, Allen L, Cameron G, Aucott LS, Webster NR. Melatonin as a potential therapy for sepsis: a phase I dose escalation study and an ex vivo whole blood model under conditions of sepsis. J Pineal Res 2014; 56(4):427-438.
72. Biancatelli RMLC, Berrill M, Mohammed YH, Paul E. Marik. Melatonin for the treatment of sepsis: the scientific rationale. J Thorac Dis 2020; 12(Suppl 1):S54-S65.
73. Zhang R, Wang X, Ni L, Di X, Ma B, Niu S, Liu C, Reiter RJ. COVID-19: Melatonin as a potential adjuvant treatment. Life Sci 2020; 117583.
74. Luo H, Tang QL, Shang YX, Liang SB, Yang M, Robinson N, Liu JP. Can Chinese Medicine Be Used for Prevention of Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)? A Review of Historical Classics, Research Evidence and Current Prevention Programs. Chin J Integr Med 2020; 26(4):243-250.
75. Yang Y, Islam MS, Wang J, Li Y, Chen X. Traditional Chinese Medicine in the Treatment of Patients Infected with 2019-New Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2): A Review and Perspective. Int J Biol Sci 2020; 16(10):1708-1717.
76. Ling CQ. Traditional Chinese medicine is a resource for drug discovery against 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). J Integr Med 2020; 18(2):87-88.
77. National Health Commission & State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine on March 3, 2020. Diagnosis and Treatment Protocol for Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia. Available at: https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Who-translation.pdf. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
78. Park A. COVID-19 vaccine shipped, and drug trials start. February 25, 2020. Available at: https://time.com/5790545/first-covid-19-vaccine/. Last accessed: April 7, 2020.
![Creative Commons License](http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc/4.0/88x31.png)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.