A Review of Shadow Education
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Published
Apr 30, 2022
Abstract
At the moment, shadow education is undergoing a rapid global expansion and has garnered widespread attention from a variety of sectors of society. After reviewing a substantial body of literature on after-school tutoring, this paper will attempt to summarize the findings of existing research on the evolution, current landscape, operating patterns, causes, impacts, and regulation of shadow education, with the goal of providing an overview of the subject for academia and sparking future research.
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Keywords
Shadow Education, Educational Equality, Private Supplementary Tutoring, After-School Tutoring Institutions, Regulation
References
Baker, D. P., Akiba, M., LeTendre, G. K., & Wiseman, A. W. (2002). Worldwide shadow education: Outside-school learning, institutional quality of schooling, and cross-national mathematics achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(1):1-17. DOI: https://org/doi/10.3102/01623737023001001
Bartlett, L., Frederick, M., Gulbrandsen, T., & Murillo, E. (2012). The marketization of education: Public schools for private ends. Anthropology & education quarterly, 33(1):5-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/AEQ.2002.33.1.5
Bray, M. (2002). Private tutoring as a shadow system of education. Pedagogika, 2002(05): 96-104.
Bray, M. (2012). The global expansion of shadow education: Its impact on educational equity and quality and its advantages and disadvantages for educational development. Comparative Education Review, 2012(02):13-17.
Bray, M. (2013). Shadow education: Comparative perspectives on the expansion and implications of private supplementary tutoring. Procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 77:412-420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.03.096
Bray, M. & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Asian Development Bank.
Byun, S. Y. (2014). Shadow education and academic success in Republic of Korea. In Korean education in changing economic and demographic contexts (pp. 39-58). Singapore: Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4451-27-7_3
Chen, Q. G. (2012). The geographic spread of private tutoring education and its social effects. Comparative Education Review, 2012(03), 42-46.
Chen, T., Gong, Y. Y., & Li, D. (2019). Cultural values of Chinese families and the choice of shadow education: From the perspective of Hofstede's cultural dimensions. Peking University Education Review, 2019(03), 164-186 + 192.
Chen, X. Y. & Wei, Z. (2019). Reflections on the shadow education fever. Education Modernization, 2019(85):159-161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16541/j.cnki. 2095-8420.2019.85.064
Dai, X. (2012). The status quo of shadow education in China. Guide to Business, 2021(01):187-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19354/j.cnki. 42-1616/f.2012.01.12
Dang, L. A. & Wells, P. C. (2000). The determinants of venture capital funding: Evidence across countries. Journal of corporate Finance, 6(3):241-289. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1199(00)00003-1
Fan, X. H. (2008). Reflections on shadow education from multiple perspectives. Tsinghua Journal of Education, 2008(06), 101-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-4519.2008.06.017
Gao, F. (2020). The impact of family capital on shadow education participation from the perspective of educational equity. Survey of Education, 2020(48), 59-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16070/j.cnki.cn45-1388/g4s. 2020.48.020.
Hu, Y. M., Fan, W. F., & Ding, W. L. (2015). Does shadow education aggravate the inequality of educational results: An empirical study based on Pisa 2012 results of Shanghai. Peking University Education Review, 2015(03): 29-46 + 188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19355/j.cnki. 1671-9468.2015.03.004.
Huang, F. & Xing, Y. R. (2020). A review of literature on after-school supplementary tutoring. Data of Culture and Education, 2020(33), 192-194.
Huang, M. Q. (2019). The deviation from educational principles in shadow education and its implications. Journal of Teaching and management, 2019(36), 18-21.
Husslein, D. E. (1997). Determinants of shadow education: A cross-national analysis (Doctoral dissertation). The Ohio State University.
Ireson, J. & Rushforth, K. (2005). Mapping and evaluating shadow education. ESRC research project RES-000-23-0117. London: Institute of Education, University of London.
Kim, Y. C. (2016). Shadow education and the curriculum and culture of schooling in South Korea. Springer.
Lee, C. J., Park, H. J., & Lee, H. (2012). Shadow education systems. In Handbook of education policy research (pp. 917-935). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203880968.ch70
Li, N. (2015). The development trend of shadow education in China. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2015(05), 54-57.
Ling, L. (2022). The development process, driving forces, and governance of shadow education in South Korea. Journal of Comparative Education, 2022(01): 54-66.
Liu, S. Y. (2020). The social influence and development trend of shadow education. Education Forum, 2020(46): 57-59.
Loyalka, P. & Zakharov, A. (2016). Does shadow education help students prepare for college? Evidence from Russia. International Journal of Educational Development, 49:22-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.01.008
Ministry of Education of China. (2018). Results from the survey of China compulsory education quality. Journal of Educational Studies, 2018(04): 46.
Mustary, M. (2019). The shadow education system in bangladesh: A blessing or a curse? The Annual International Conference of the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society (BCES).
Pan, D. D. & Wang, M. (2020). The development of shadow education in China since the reform and opening up and reflections. Education Research Monthly, 2020(09):12-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16477/j.cnki. issn1674-2311.2020.09.002.
Pang, X. P., Yan, R. H., Nie, J. C., Rozelle, S., Zhang, L. X., Shi, Y. J., & Pang, X. D. (2017). Can rural primary school students improve their academic performance through after-school tutoring. China Economics of Education Review, 2017(02), 87-101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19512/j.cnki. issn2096-2088.2017.02.010.
Peng, P. (2007). Shadow education: Research on after-school tutoring and implications. Primary and Secondary Schooling Abroad, 2007(09): 44-48.
Peng, X. X. (2018). Advantages and disadvantages of shadow education from the perspective of cultural capital. Tribune of Education Culture, (01):98-101 + 107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15958/j.cnki. jywhlt. 2018.01.020.
Ru, Z. Z. & Yang, J. M. (2018). The problems and governance of shadow education: From the perspective of burden reduction. Journal of Baoji University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences), 2018(04): 114-119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13467/j.cnki. jbuss. 2018.04.018.
Smyth, E. (2009). Buying your way into college? Private tuition and the transition to higher education in Ireland. Oxford Review of Education, 35(1):1-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980801981426
Stevenson, D. L. & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow education and allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in Japan. American Journal of sociology, 97(6):1639-1657. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/229942
Tan, S. H. (2020). How to improve the effectiveness of classroom teaching in the core competence education. New Curriculum, 2020(18):159.
Xu, Z. X. (2020). Does shadow education improve academic performance: Empirical evidence from CEPS. Journal of Schooling Studies, 2020(02):9-19.
Xue, H. P. (2015). From school education to shadow education: educational competition and social reproduction. Peking University Education Review, 2015(03):47-69 + 188-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19355/j.cnki. 1671-9468.2015.03.005.
Wang, Y. F. & Li, M. J. (2014). The relationship between schoolwork burden and academic achievement of primary school students. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2014(10): 59-63.
Yamato, Y. & Zhang, W. (2017). Changing schooling, changing shadow: Shapes and functions of juku in Japan. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(3):329-343. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2017.1345719
Yang, D. C. & Li, J. M. (2022). The status quo and problems of the implementation of the double reduction policy and regulatory measures at county level -Based on the investigation into the governance of shadow education institutions in X county, Yunnan province. Journal of Chengdu Normal University, 2022 (01): 1-8.
Yang, H. L. (2012). On shadow education in EU countries. Education Science, 2012(04):72-75.
Yu, J. S & Jia, L. S. (2020). The governance of Japan’s shadow education and its implications. Contemporary Education Sciences, 2020(04): 65-69.
Zhang, W. & Bray, M. (2020). Comparative research on shadow education: Achievements, challenges, and the agenda ahead. European Journal of Education, 55(3):322-341. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12413
Zhao, Y., Yang, H. Y., & Bao, J. L. (2021). The research of shadow education in China- Based on the analysis of relevant literature from CNKI between 1996 and 2020. Survey of Education, 2021(27): 22-25 + 60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16070/j.cnki. cn45-1388/g4s. 2021.27.008.
Zhi, T. J. & Ding, Y. D. (2020). Involvement of primary and middle school students’ families in shadow education-from the perspective of motivations. Tsinghua Journal of Education, 2020(04):68-74 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14138/j.1001-4519.2020.04.006807.
Zhou, H. Y. (2021). The implementation of the double reduction policy and the return of educational principles. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2021(12): 2.
Zhou, Z. B. & Qi, Y. L. (2008). The implementation of the double reduction policy: Focus, difficulties and suggestions. Journal of Xinjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences), 2008(01), 69-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14100/j.cnki. 65-1039/g4. 20211022.001.
Bartlett, L., Frederick, M., Gulbrandsen, T., & Murillo, E. (2012). The marketization of education: Public schools for private ends. Anthropology & education quarterly, 33(1):5-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/AEQ.2002.33.1.5
Bray, M. (2002). Private tutoring as a shadow system of education. Pedagogika, 2002(05): 96-104.
Bray, M. (2012). The global expansion of shadow education: Its impact on educational equity and quality and its advantages and disadvantages for educational development. Comparative Education Review, 2012(02):13-17.
Bray, M. (2013). Shadow education: Comparative perspectives on the expansion and implications of private supplementary tutoring. Procedia-social and behavioral sciences, 77:412-420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.03.096
Bray, M. & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Asian Development Bank.
Byun, S. Y. (2014). Shadow education and academic success in Republic of Korea. In Korean education in changing economic and demographic contexts (pp. 39-58). Singapore: Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4451-27-7_3
Chen, Q. G. (2012). The geographic spread of private tutoring education and its social effects. Comparative Education Review, 2012(03), 42-46.
Chen, T., Gong, Y. Y., & Li, D. (2019). Cultural values of Chinese families and the choice of shadow education: From the perspective of Hofstede's cultural dimensions. Peking University Education Review, 2019(03), 164-186 + 192.
Chen, X. Y. & Wei, Z. (2019). Reflections on the shadow education fever. Education Modernization, 2019(85):159-161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16541/j.cnki. 2095-8420.2019.85.064
Dai, X. (2012). The status quo of shadow education in China. Guide to Business, 2021(01):187-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19354/j.cnki. 42-1616/f.2012.01.12
Dang, L. A. & Wells, P. C. (2000). The determinants of venture capital funding: Evidence across countries. Journal of corporate Finance, 6(3):241-289. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1199(00)00003-1
Fan, X. H. (2008). Reflections on shadow education from multiple perspectives. Tsinghua Journal of Education, 2008(06), 101-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-4519.2008.06.017
Gao, F. (2020). The impact of family capital on shadow education participation from the perspective of educational equity. Survey of Education, 2020(48), 59-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16070/j.cnki.cn45-1388/g4s. 2020.48.020.
Hu, Y. M., Fan, W. F., & Ding, W. L. (2015). Does shadow education aggravate the inequality of educational results: An empirical study based on Pisa 2012 results of Shanghai. Peking University Education Review, 2015(03): 29-46 + 188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19355/j.cnki. 1671-9468.2015.03.004.
Huang, F. & Xing, Y. R. (2020). A review of literature on after-school supplementary tutoring. Data of Culture and Education, 2020(33), 192-194.
Huang, M. Q. (2019). The deviation from educational principles in shadow education and its implications. Journal of Teaching and management, 2019(36), 18-21.
Husslein, D. E. (1997). Determinants of shadow education: A cross-national analysis (Doctoral dissertation). The Ohio State University.
Ireson, J. & Rushforth, K. (2005). Mapping and evaluating shadow education. ESRC research project RES-000-23-0117. London: Institute of Education, University of London.
Kim, Y. C. (2016). Shadow education and the curriculum and culture of schooling in South Korea. Springer.
Lee, C. J., Park, H. J., & Lee, H. (2012). Shadow education systems. In Handbook of education policy research (pp. 917-935). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203880968.ch70
Li, N. (2015). The development trend of shadow education in China. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2015(05), 54-57.
Ling, L. (2022). The development process, driving forces, and governance of shadow education in South Korea. Journal of Comparative Education, 2022(01): 54-66.
Liu, S. Y. (2020). The social influence and development trend of shadow education. Education Forum, 2020(46): 57-59.
Loyalka, P. & Zakharov, A. (2016). Does shadow education help students prepare for college? Evidence from Russia. International Journal of Educational Development, 49:22-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.01.008
Ministry of Education of China. (2018). Results from the survey of China compulsory education quality. Journal of Educational Studies, 2018(04): 46.
Mustary, M. (2019). The shadow education system in bangladesh: A blessing or a curse? The Annual International Conference of the Bulgarian Comparative Education Society (BCES).
Pan, D. D. & Wang, M. (2020). The development of shadow education in China since the reform and opening up and reflections. Education Research Monthly, 2020(09):12-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16477/j.cnki. issn1674-2311.2020.09.002.
Pang, X. P., Yan, R. H., Nie, J. C., Rozelle, S., Zhang, L. X., Shi, Y. J., & Pang, X. D. (2017). Can rural primary school students improve their academic performance through after-school tutoring. China Economics of Education Review, 2017(02), 87-101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19512/j.cnki. issn2096-2088.2017.02.010.
Peng, P. (2007). Shadow education: Research on after-school tutoring and implications. Primary and Secondary Schooling Abroad, 2007(09): 44-48.
Peng, X. X. (2018). Advantages and disadvantages of shadow education from the perspective of cultural capital. Tribune of Education Culture, (01):98-101 + 107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15958/j.cnki. jywhlt. 2018.01.020.
Ru, Z. Z. & Yang, J. M. (2018). The problems and governance of shadow education: From the perspective of burden reduction. Journal of Baoji University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences), 2018(04): 114-119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13467/j.cnki. jbuss. 2018.04.018.
Smyth, E. (2009). Buying your way into college? Private tuition and the transition to higher education in Ireland. Oxford Review of Education, 35(1):1-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980801981426
Stevenson, D. L. & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow education and allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in Japan. American Journal of sociology, 97(6):1639-1657. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/229942
Tan, S. H. (2020). How to improve the effectiveness of classroom teaching in the core competence education. New Curriculum, 2020(18):159.
Xu, Z. X. (2020). Does shadow education improve academic performance: Empirical evidence from CEPS. Journal of Schooling Studies, 2020(02):9-19.
Xue, H. P. (2015). From school education to shadow education: educational competition and social reproduction. Peking University Education Review, 2015(03):47-69 + 188-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19355/j.cnki. 1671-9468.2015.03.005.
Wang, Y. F. & Li, M. J. (2014). The relationship between schoolwork burden and academic achievement of primary school students. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2014(10): 59-63.
Yamato, Y. & Zhang, W. (2017). Changing schooling, changing shadow: Shapes and functions of juku in Japan. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(3):329-343. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2017.1345719
Yang, D. C. & Li, J. M. (2022). The status quo and problems of the implementation of the double reduction policy and regulatory measures at county level -Based on the investigation into the governance of shadow education institutions in X county, Yunnan province. Journal of Chengdu Normal University, 2022 (01): 1-8.
Yang, H. L. (2012). On shadow education in EU countries. Education Science, 2012(04):72-75.
Yu, J. S & Jia, L. S. (2020). The governance of Japan’s shadow education and its implications. Contemporary Education Sciences, 2020(04): 65-69.
Zhang, W. & Bray, M. (2020). Comparative research on shadow education: Achievements, challenges, and the agenda ahead. European Journal of Education, 55(3):322-341. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12413
Zhao, Y., Yang, H. Y., & Bao, J. L. (2021). The research of shadow education in China- Based on the analysis of relevant literature from CNKI between 1996 and 2020. Survey of Education, 2021(27): 22-25 + 60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16070/j.cnki. cn45-1388/g4s. 2021.27.008.
Zhi, T. J. & Ding, Y. D. (2020). Involvement of primary and middle school students’ families in shadow education-from the perspective of motivations. Tsinghua Journal of Education, 2020(04):68-74 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14138/j.1001-4519.2020.04.006807.
Zhou, H. Y. (2021). The implementation of the double reduction policy and the return of educational principles. Journal of the Chinese Society of Education, 2021(12): 2.
Zhou, Z. B. & Qi, Y. L. (2008). The implementation of the double reduction policy: Focus, difficulties and suggestions. Journal of Xinjiang Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences), 2008(01), 69-78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14100/j.cnki. 65-1039/g4. 20211022.001.
How to Cite
Yu, J., & Zhang, R. (2022). A Review of Shadow Education. Science Insights Education Frontiers, 11(2), 1579–1593. https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.22.re058
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