The Big Bang of Brain Trauma
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Published
Dec 30, 2024
Abstract
In terms of its devastating consequences on cognitive function and general neurological health, brain trauma is comparable to the aftermath of a big bang. Brain trauma sets off a cascade of events within the brain that can result in extensive damage and disruption of normal functioning, much like the force of a big bang starts a chain reaction of destruction throughout the cosmos. Secondary mechanisms like oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and apoptosis are brought on by the first impact's instantaneous release of neurotransmitters and inflammatory reactions. A cascade of these events can lead to emotional dysregulation, motor dysfunction, and long-term cognitive problems. Using this analogy to understand brain trauma emphasizes how severe and irreversible its effects are, underscoring the urgent need for efficient preventative measures and therapeutic approaches to lessen its terrible effects.
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Keywords
Brain Trauma, Big Bang, Neurotoxicity, Secondary Stress, Preventive Measures
Supporting Agencies
No funding source declared.
References
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Andreopoulos, Y., Sadegh, A. M., Jahnke, D., & Hashemi, S. (2016). The effect of shock waves on brain blood pressure; experimental and computational studies. International Journal of Experimental and Computational Biomechanics, 4(1), 59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/ijecb.2016.10002687
Barnett, H. (2007). Care of a patient following a head injury. British Journal of Healthcare Assistants, 1(7), 297–301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12968/bjha.2007.1.7.27292
Billot, A., & Kiran, S. (2024). Disentangling neuroplasticity mechanisms in post-stroke language recovery. Brain and Language, 251, 105381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2024.105381
Bottom-Tanzer, S., Corella, S., Meyer, J., Sommer, M., Bolaños, L., Murphy, T., Quiñones, S., Heiney, S., Shtrahman, M., Whalen, M., Oren, R., Higley, M. J., Cardin, J. A., Noubary, F., Armbruster, M., & Dulla, C. (2024). Traumatic brain injury disrupts state-dependent functional cortical connectivity in a mouse model. Cerebral Cortex, 34(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhae038
Brasure, M., Lamberty, G. J., Sayer, N. A., Nelson, N. W., MacDonald, R., Ouellette, J., Tacklind, J., Grove, M., Rutks I. R., Butler, M. E., Kane, R. L., & Wilt, T. J. (2012). Multidisciplinary postacute rehabilitation for moderate to severe traumatic brain injury in adults [Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US), Rockville (MD)]. In Multidisciplinary Postacute Rehabilitation for Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in Adults. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK98993
Brice, A. E., & Brice, R. G. (2017). Recovery from Diffuse Brain Injuries: Two Case Studies. In InTech eBooks. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69624
Brown, J., Luckhardt, B., Harr, D., Poser, T., & Fenrich, A. (2018). Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): A Guide for Probation Officers. Journal of Trauma & Treatment, 7(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-1222.1000417
Cai, L. T., Brett, B. L., Palacios, E. M., Yuh, E. L., Bourla, I., Wren-Jarvis, J., Wang, Y., Mac Donald, C., Diaz-Arrastia, R., Giacino, J. T., Okonkwo, D. O., Levin, H. S., Robertson, C. S., Temkin, N., Markowitz, A. J., Manley, G. T., Stein, M. B., McCrea, M. A., Zafonte, R. D., . . . Merchant, R. (2022). Emotional Resilience Predicts Preserved White Matter Microstructure Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 9(2), 164–175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2022.08.015
Cherian, K. N., Keynan, J. N., Anker, L., Faerman, A., Brown, R. E., Shamma, A., Keynan, O., Coetzee, J. P., Batail, J., Phillips, A., Bassano, N. J., Sahlem, G. L., Inzunza, J., Millar, T., Dickinson, J., Rolle, C. E., Keller, J., Adamson, M., Kratter, I. H., & Williams, N. R. (2024). Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries. Nature Medicine, 30(2), 373–381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02705-w
Chow, T. W. (2000). Personality in frontal lobe disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 2(5), 446–451. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-000-0031-5
Cristofori, I., & Levin, H. S. (2015). Traumatic brain injury and cognition. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 579–611. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-63521-1.00037-6
Dams-O’Connor, K., Juengst, S. B., Bogner, J., Chiaravalloti, N. D., Corrigan, J. D., Giacino, J. T., Harrison-Felix, C. L., Hoffman, J. M., Ketchum, J. M., Lequerica, A. H., Marwitz, J. H., Miller, A. C., Nakase-Richardson, R., Rabinowitz, A. R., Sander, A. M., Zafonte, R., & Hammond, F. M. (2023). Traumatic brain injury as a chronic disease: insights from the United States Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Research Program. The Lancet Neurology, 22(6), 517–528. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(23)00065-0
Danielli, E., Simard, N., DeMatteo, C. A., Kumbhare, D., Ulmer, S., & Noseworthy, M. D. (2023). A review of brain regions and associated post-concussion symptoms. Frontiers in Neurology, 14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1136367
Flanagan, S. (2008). Traumatic brain injury: future assessment tools and treatment prospects. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 877. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s1985
Gupta, R. K., & Przekwas, A. (2013). Mathematical Models of Blast-Induced TBI: Current Status, Challenges, and Prospects. Frontiers in Neurology, 4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2013.00059
Heyburn, L., Batuure, A., Wilder, D., Long, J., & Sajja, V. S. (2023). Neuroinflammation Profiling of Brain Cytokines Following Repeated Blast Exposure. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(16), 12564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241612564
Hicks, R. R., Fertig, S. J., Desrocher, R. E., Koroshetz, W. J., & Pancrazio, J. J. (2010). Neurological Effects of Blast Injury. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 68(5), 1257–1263. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/ta.0b013e3181d8956d
Jha, S., & Ghewade, P. (2022). Management and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injuries. Cureus, 14(10), e30617. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.30617
Johnstone, D. M., Mitrofanis, J., & Stone, J. (2023). The brain’s weakness in the face of trauma: How head trauma causes the destruction of the brain. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1141568
Kamnaksh, A., Budde, M. D., Kovesdi, E., Long, J. B., Frank, J. A., & Agoston, D. V. (2014). Diffusion Tensor Imaging Reveals Acute Subcortical Changes after Mild Blast-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury. Scientific Reports, 4(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04809
Khan, F., Baguley, I. J., & Cameron, I. D. (2003). 4: Rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury. The Medical Journal of Australia, 178(6), 290–295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.2003.tb05199.x
Kim, J. J., & Gean, A. D. (2011). Imaging for the Diagnosis and Management of Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurotherapeutics, 8(1), 39–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-010-0003-3
Kolb, B., & Muhammad, A. (2014). Harnessing the power of neuroplasticity for intervention. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00377
Kolias, A. G., Guilfoyle, M. R., Helmy, A., Allanson, J., & Hutchinson, P. J. (2013). Traumatic brain injury in adults. Practical Neurology, 13(4), 228–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/practneurol-2012-000268
Kovacs, S. K., Leonessa, F., & Ling, G. S. F. (2014). Blast TBI Models, Neuropathology, and Implications for Seizure Risk. Frontiers in Neurology, 5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2014.00047
Laskowitz, D., & Grant, G. (2015). Neuroplasticity after traumatic brain injury [Translational Research in Traumatic Brain Injury]. In CRC Press eBooks (pp. 186–201). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/b18959-13
Levin, H. S. (2003). Neuroplasticity following non-penetrating traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 17(8), 665–674. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0269905031000107151
Mason, S. W. (2018). Adoption of the Transport and Burgers’ Equations in Modeling Neurological Shock-Waves in the Human Brain Due to Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs). Frontiers in Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fams.2018.00029
McCreight, R. (2024). The war inside your mind: unprotected brain battlefields and neuro-vulnerability. Academia Biology. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/acadbiol6156
Ng, S. Y., & Lee, A. Y. W. (2019). Traumatic Brain Injuries: Pathophysiology and Potential Therapeutic Targets. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00528
Norup, A., & Mortensen, E. L. (2014). Prevalence and Predictors of Personality Change After Severe Brain Injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 96(1), 56–62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2014.08.009
Nudo, R. J. (2011). Neural bases of recovery after brain injury. Journal of Communication Disorders, 44(5), 515–520. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.04.004
Prins, M., Greco, T., Alexander, D., & Giza, C. C. (2013). The pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury at a glance. Disease Models & Mechanisms. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1242/dmm.011585
Rieger, S. M. (2015). Personality and Behavior Changes Subsequent to Traumatic Brain Injury: A Review of the Literature. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience, 17(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/1522-4821.1000196
Shaffer, J. (2016). Neuroplasticity and Clinical Practice: Building Brain Power for Health. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01118
Stocchetti, N., & Zanier, E. R. (2016). Chronic impact of traumatic brain injury on outcome and quality of life: a narrative review. Critical Care, 20(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-016-1318-1
Wald, M., Burgess, P., Sullivent, E., Sasser, S., Ossmann, E., & Kapil, V. (2010). Managing traumatic brain injury secondary to explosions. Journal of Emergencies Trauma and Shock, 3(2), 164. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-2700.62120
Witol, A. D., Sander, A. M., Seel, R. T., & Kreutzer, J. S. (1996). Long term neurobehavioral characteristics after brain injury: implications for vocational rehabilitation. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 7(3), 159–167. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/jvr-1996-7306
Zhao, Q., Zhang, J., Li, H., Li, H., & Xie, F. (2023). Models of traumatic brain injury-highlights and drawbacks. Frontiers in Neurology, 14, 1151660. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1151660
Andreopoulos, Y., Sadegh, A. M., Jahnke, D., & Hashemi, S. (2016). The effect of shock waves on brain blood pressure; experimental and computational studies. International Journal of Experimental and Computational Biomechanics, 4(1), 59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/ijecb.2016.10002687
Barnett, H. (2007). Care of a patient following a head injury. British Journal of Healthcare Assistants, 1(7), 297–301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12968/bjha.2007.1.7.27292
Billot, A., & Kiran, S. (2024). Disentangling neuroplasticity mechanisms in post-stroke language recovery. Brain and Language, 251, 105381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2024.105381
Bottom-Tanzer, S., Corella, S., Meyer, J., Sommer, M., Bolaños, L., Murphy, T., Quiñones, S., Heiney, S., Shtrahman, M., Whalen, M., Oren, R., Higley, M. J., Cardin, J. A., Noubary, F., Armbruster, M., & Dulla, C. (2024). Traumatic brain injury disrupts state-dependent functional cortical connectivity in a mouse model. Cerebral Cortex, 34(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhae038
Brasure, M., Lamberty, G. J., Sayer, N. A., Nelson, N. W., MacDonald, R., Ouellette, J., Tacklind, J., Grove, M., Rutks I. R., Butler, M. E., Kane, R. L., & Wilt, T. J. (2012). Multidisciplinary postacute rehabilitation for moderate to severe traumatic brain injury in adults [Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US), Rockville (MD)]. In Multidisciplinary Postacute Rehabilitation for Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in Adults. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK98993
Brice, A. E., & Brice, R. G. (2017). Recovery from Diffuse Brain Injuries: Two Case Studies. In InTech eBooks. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69624
Brown, J., Luckhardt, B., Harr, D., Poser, T., & Fenrich, A. (2018). Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): A Guide for Probation Officers. Journal of Trauma & Treatment, 7(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/2167-1222.1000417
Cai, L. T., Brett, B. L., Palacios, E. M., Yuh, E. L., Bourla, I., Wren-Jarvis, J., Wang, Y., Mac Donald, C., Diaz-Arrastia, R., Giacino, J. T., Okonkwo, D. O., Levin, H. S., Robertson, C. S., Temkin, N., Markowitz, A. J., Manley, G. T., Stein, M. B., McCrea, M. A., Zafonte, R. D., . . . Merchant, R. (2022). Emotional Resilience Predicts Preserved White Matter Microstructure Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 9(2), 164–175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2022.08.015
Cherian, K. N., Keynan, J. N., Anker, L., Faerman, A., Brown, R. E., Shamma, A., Keynan, O., Coetzee, J. P., Batail, J., Phillips, A., Bassano, N. J., Sahlem, G. L., Inzunza, J., Millar, T., Dickinson, J., Rolle, C. E., Keller, J., Adamson, M., Kratter, I. H., & Williams, N. R. (2024). Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries. Nature Medicine, 30(2), 373–381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02705-w
Chow, T. W. (2000). Personality in frontal lobe disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 2(5), 446–451. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-000-0031-5
Cristofori, I., & Levin, H. S. (2015). Traumatic brain injury and cognition. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 579–611. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-63521-1.00037-6
Dams-O’Connor, K., Juengst, S. B., Bogner, J., Chiaravalloti, N. D., Corrigan, J. D., Giacino, J. T., Harrison-Felix, C. L., Hoffman, J. M., Ketchum, J. M., Lequerica, A. H., Marwitz, J. H., Miller, A. C., Nakase-Richardson, R., Rabinowitz, A. R., Sander, A. M., Zafonte, R., & Hammond, F. M. (2023). Traumatic brain injury as a chronic disease: insights from the United States Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Research Program. The Lancet Neurology, 22(6), 517–528. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(23)00065-0
Danielli, E., Simard, N., DeMatteo, C. A., Kumbhare, D., Ulmer, S., & Noseworthy, M. D. (2023). A review of brain regions and associated post-concussion symptoms. Frontiers in Neurology, 14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1136367
Flanagan, S. (2008). Traumatic brain injury: future assessment tools and treatment prospects. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 877. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.s1985
Gupta, R. K., & Przekwas, A. (2013). Mathematical Models of Blast-Induced TBI: Current Status, Challenges, and Prospects. Frontiers in Neurology, 4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2013.00059
Heyburn, L., Batuure, A., Wilder, D., Long, J., & Sajja, V. S. (2023). Neuroinflammation Profiling of Brain Cytokines Following Repeated Blast Exposure. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(16), 12564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241612564
Hicks, R. R., Fertig, S. J., Desrocher, R. E., Koroshetz, W. J., & Pancrazio, J. J. (2010). Neurological Effects of Blast Injury. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 68(5), 1257–1263. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/ta.0b013e3181d8956d
Jha, S., & Ghewade, P. (2022). Management and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injuries. Cureus, 14(10), e30617. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.30617
Johnstone, D. M., Mitrofanis, J., & Stone, J. (2023). The brain’s weakness in the face of trauma: How head trauma causes the destruction of the brain. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1141568
Kamnaksh, A., Budde, M. D., Kovesdi, E., Long, J. B., Frank, J. A., & Agoston, D. V. (2014). Diffusion Tensor Imaging Reveals Acute Subcortical Changes after Mild Blast-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury. Scientific Reports, 4(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04809
Khan, F., Baguley, I. J., & Cameron, I. D. (2003). 4: Rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury. The Medical Journal of Australia, 178(6), 290–295. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.2003.tb05199.x
Kim, J. J., & Gean, A. D. (2011). Imaging for the Diagnosis and Management of Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurotherapeutics, 8(1), 39–53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-010-0003-3
Kolb, B., & Muhammad, A. (2014). Harnessing the power of neuroplasticity for intervention. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00377
Kolias, A. G., Guilfoyle, M. R., Helmy, A., Allanson, J., & Hutchinson, P. J. (2013). Traumatic brain injury in adults. Practical Neurology, 13(4), 228–235. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/practneurol-2012-000268
Kovacs, S. K., Leonessa, F., & Ling, G. S. F. (2014). Blast TBI Models, Neuropathology, and Implications for Seizure Risk. Frontiers in Neurology, 5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2014.00047
Laskowitz, D., & Grant, G. (2015). Neuroplasticity after traumatic brain injury [Translational Research in Traumatic Brain Injury]. In CRC Press eBooks (pp. 186–201). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/b18959-13
Levin, H. S. (2003). Neuroplasticity following non-penetrating traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 17(8), 665–674. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0269905031000107151
Mason, S. W. (2018). Adoption of the Transport and Burgers’ Equations in Modeling Neurological Shock-Waves in the Human Brain Due to Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs). Frontiers in Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fams.2018.00029
McCreight, R. (2024). The war inside your mind: unprotected brain battlefields and neuro-vulnerability. Academia Biology. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/acadbiol6156
Ng, S. Y., & Lee, A. Y. W. (2019). Traumatic Brain Injuries: Pathophysiology and Potential Therapeutic Targets. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00528
Norup, A., & Mortensen, E. L. (2014). Prevalence and Predictors of Personality Change After Severe Brain Injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 96(1), 56–62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2014.08.009
Nudo, R. J. (2011). Neural bases of recovery after brain injury. Journal of Communication Disorders, 44(5), 515–520. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2011.04.004
Prins, M., Greco, T., Alexander, D., & Giza, C. C. (2013). The pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury at a glance. Disease Models & Mechanisms. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1242/dmm.011585
Rieger, S. M. (2015). Personality and Behavior Changes Subsequent to Traumatic Brain Injury: A Review of the Literature. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience, 17(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4172/1522-4821.1000196
Shaffer, J. (2016). Neuroplasticity and Clinical Practice: Building Brain Power for Health. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01118
Stocchetti, N., & Zanier, E. R. (2016). Chronic impact of traumatic brain injury on outcome and quality of life: a narrative review. Critical Care, 20(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-016-1318-1
Wald, M., Burgess, P., Sullivent, E., Sasser, S., Ossmann, E., & Kapil, V. (2010). Managing traumatic brain injury secondary to explosions. Journal of Emergencies Trauma and Shock, 3(2), 164. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-2700.62120
Witol, A. D., Sander, A. M., Seel, R. T., & Kreutzer, J. S. (1996). Long term neurobehavioral characteristics after brain injury: implications for vocational rehabilitation. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 7(3), 159–167. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/jvr-1996-7306
Zhao, Q., Zhang, J., Li, H., Li, H., & Xie, F. (2023). Models of traumatic brain injury-highlights and drawbacks. Frontiers in Neurology, 14, 1151660. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1151660
How to Cite
de Silva Santos, A. (2024). The Big Bang of Brain Trauma. Science Insights, 45(6), 1673–1676. https://doi.org/10.15354/si.24.op231
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