A Causal Analysis of Women Engaging in Commercial Sex
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Published
Feb 28, 2022
Abstract
Female sex workers (FSWs) are women who engage in sexual behavior with others for monetary compensation. The FSW community has comparable demographic characteristics to the overall population, with a focus on youth, low education, and high mobility. Some women engage in sex trafficking on purpose, not to earn money, but to violate social norms. Feminists who grow up in broken or dysfunctional homes have their familial support networks disturbed. Disruptions to the financial support network include forced departures due to financial restrictions, unemployment, and so on. Women’s decisions to enter the sector are significantly influenced by peer behavior. Sexual assault may have a detrimental effect on an individual’s viewpoint, self-awareness, and emotional capacity. While the majority of FSWs are motivated by economic considerations, a sizable percentage is driven to prostitution. Other women forced into the sex trade have great things to say about it, and when given the opportunity to leave, some opt to stay.
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Keywords
Female Sex Workers, Causal Analysis, Sexual Behavior, Commercial Sex, Economics
References
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2. Kramer LA, Berg EC. A survival analysis of timing of entry into prostitution: The differential impact of race, educational level, and childhood/adolescent risk factors. Sociol Inq 2003; 73(4):511-528. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-682X.00069
3. Bilardi JE, Miller A, Hocking JS, Keogh L, Cummings R, Chen MY, Bradshaw CS, Fairley CK. The job satisfaction of female sex workers working in licensed brothels in Victoria, Australia. J Sex Med 2011; 8(1):116-122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.01967.x
4. Hong Y, Li XM. Behavioral studies of female sex workers in China:a literature review and recommendation for future research. AIDS Behav 2008; 12(4):623-636. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461- 007-9287-7
5. Johnston LG, Sabin K, Mai TH, Pham TH. Assessment of respondent driven sampling for recruiting female sex workers in two Vietnamese cities: Reaching the unseen sex worker. J Urban Health 2006; 83(6 Suppl):i16-i28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-006-9099-5
6. Dandona R, Dandona L, Kumar GA, Gutierrez JP, McPherson S, Samuels F, Bertozzi SM; ASCI FPP Study Team. Demography and sex work characteristics of female sex workers in India. BMC Int Health Hum Rights 2006; 6:5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-6-5
7. Onyeneho NG. HIV/AIDS risk factors and economic empowerment needs of female sex workers in Enugu Urban, Nigeria. Tanzan J Health Res 2009; 11(3):126-135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/thrb.v11i3.47698
8. Bucardo J, Semple SJ, Fraga-Vallejo M, Davila W, Patterson TL. A qualitative exploration of female sex work in Tijuana, Mexico. Arch Sex Behav 2004; 33(4):343-351. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028887.96873.f3
9. Devine A, Bowen K, Dzuvichu B, Rungsung R, Kermode M. Pathways to sex-work in Nagaland, India: Implications for HIV prevention and community mobilisation. AIDS Care 2010; 22(2):228-237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120903039869
10. Li Y, Detels R, Lin P, Fu X, Deng Z, Liu Y, Tan Y, Li J, Wu Z. Prevalence of HIV and STIs and associated risk factors among female sex workers in Guangdong Province, China. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 53(Suppl 1):S48-S53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181c7d72f
11. Karkov R. What drives a prostitute. ScienceNordic.(2012-03-08)[2015-04-20]. Last access: February 28, 2022. Available at: http://sciencenordic.com/what-drives-prostitute
12. Saggurti N, Verma RK, Halli SS, Swain SN, Singh R, Modugu HR, Ramarao S, Mahapatra B, Jain AK. Motivations for entry into sex work and HIV risk among mobile female sex workers in India. J Biosoc Sci 2011; 43(5):535-554. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932011000277
13. Weitzer R. Sociology of sex work. Ann Rev Sociol, 2009; 35(1):213-234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120025
14. Rosen E, Venkatesh SA. A “perversion” of choice sex work offers just enough in Chicago’s urban ghetto. J Contem Ethnogr 2008; 37(4):417-441. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241607309879
15. Pueyo A, Maestre M. Linking energy access, gender and poverty: A review of the literature on productive uses of energy. Energy Res Soc Sci 2019; 53:170-181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.02.019
16. Onyeneho NG. HIV/AIDS risk factors and economic empowerment needs of female sex workers in Enugu Urban, Nigeria. Tanzan J Health Res 2009; 11(3):126-135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/thrb.v11i3.47698
17. Aral SO, St Lawrence JS, Tikhonova L, Safarova E, Parker KA, Shakarishvili A, Ryan CA. The social organization of commercial sex work in Moscow, Russia. Sex Transm Dis 2003; 30(1):39-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00007435-200301000-00009
18. Zhang L, Li X, Wang B, Shen Z, Zhou Y, Xu J, Tang Z, Stanton B. Violence, stigma and mental health among female sex workers in China: A structural equation modeling. Women Health 2017; 57(6):685-704. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2016.1186781
19. Ingabire MC, Mitchell K, Veldhuijzen N, Umulisa MM, Nyinawabega J, Kestelyn E, Van Steijn M, Van De Wijgert J, Pool R. Joining and leaving sex work: experiences of women in Kigali, Rwanda. Cult Health Sex 2012; 14(9):1037-1047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2012.713120
20. Saggurti N, Sabarwal S, Verma R, Halli S, Jain A. Harsh realities:reasons for women’s involvement in sex work in India. J AIDS HIV Res 2011; 3(9):172-179.
21. O’Neil J, Orchard T, Swarankar RC, Blanchard JF, Gurav K, Moses S. Dhandha, dharma and disease: traditional sex work and HIV/AIDS in rural India. Soc Sci Med 2004; 59(4):851-860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.11.032
22. Blanchard JF, O’neil J, Ramesh BM, Bhattacharjee P, Orchard T, Moses S. Understanding the social and cultural contexts of female sex workers in Karnataka, India: implications for prevention of HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2005; 191(Suppl 1):S139-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/425273
23. Becker ML, Mishra S, Satyanarayana, Gurav K, Doshi M, Buzdugan R, Pise G, Halli S, Moses S, Avery L, Washington RG, Blanchard JF. Rates and determinants of HIV-attributable mortality among rural female sex workers in Northern Karnataka, India. Int J STD AIDS 2012; 23(1):36-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1258/ijsa.2011.011017
24. Hwang SL, Bedford O. Precursors and pathways to adolescent prostitution in Taiwan. J Sex Res 2003; 40(2):201-210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552181
25. Ghosh B. Trafficking in women and children in India: Nature, dimensions and strategies for prevention. Int J Hum Rig 2009; 13(5):716-738. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13642980802533109
26. George A, Sabarwal S. Sex trafficking, physical and sexual violence, and HIV risk among young female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, India. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2013; 120(2):119-123. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2012.08.019
27. Reed E, Erausquin JT, Groves AK, Salazar M, Biradavolu M, Blankenship KM. Client-perpetrated and husband-perpetrated violence among female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, India: HIV/STI risk across personal and work contexts. Sex Transm Infect 2016; 92(6):424-429. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2015-052162
28. Sarkar K, Bal B, Mukherjee R, Chakraborty S, Saha S, Ghosh A, Parsons S. Sex-trafficking, violence, negotiating skill, and HIV infection in brothel-based sex workers of eastern India, adjoining Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. J Health Popul Nutr 2008; 26(2):223-231.
29. Mamulwar M, Godbole S, Bembalkar S, Kamble P, Dulhani N, Yadav R, Kadu C, Kumar P, Lalikar S, Acharya S, Gangakhedkar R, Risbud A, Venkatesh S. Differing HIV vulnerability among female sex workers in a high HIV burden Indian state. PLoS One 2018; 13(2):e0192130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192130
30. Evens E, Lanham M, Santi K, Cooke J, Ridgeway K, Morales G, Parker C, Brennan C, de Bruin M, Desrosiers PC, Diaz X, Drago M, McLean R, Mendizabal M, Davis D, Hershow RB, Dayton R. Experiences of gender-based violence among female sex workers, men who have sex with men, and transgender women in Latin America and the Caribbean: a qualitative study to inform HIV programming. BMC Int Health Hum Rights 2019; 19(1):9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-019-0187-5
31. McClarty LM, Bhattacharjee P, Blanchard JF, Lorway RR, Ramanaik S, Mishra S, Isac S, Ramesh BM, Washington R, Moses S, Becker ML. Circumstances, experiences and processes surrounding women’s entry into sex work in India. Cult Health Sex 2014; 16(2):149-163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2013.845692
32. Gerassi L. A heated debate: Theoretical perspectives of sexual exploitation and sex work. J Sociol Soc Welf 2015; 42(4):79-100.
33. Flemming R. Quae Corpore Quaestum Facit: The sexual economy of female prostitution in the Roman Empire. J Roman Stud 1999; 89:38-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/300733
34. Cusick L. Youth prostitution: A literature review. Child Abuse Rev 2002; 11(4):230-251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/car.743
35. Dalla RL. Et Tú Brutè. A qualitative analysis of streetwalking prostitutes’ interpersonal support networks. J Fam Issues 2001; 22(8):1066-1085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/019251301022008006
36. Cobbina JE, Oselin SS. It’s not only for the money: An analysis of adolescent versus adult entry into street prostitution. Sociol Inq 2011; 81(3):310-332. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2011. 00375.x
37. Murphy LS. Understanding the social and economic contexts surrounding women engaged in street-level prostitution. Issues Ment Health Nurs 2010; 31(12):775-784. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2010.524345
38. Hossain M, Zimmerman C, Abas M, Light M, Watts C. The relationship of trauma to mental disorders among trafficked and sexually exploited girls and women. Am J Public Health 2010; 100(12):2442-2449. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.173229
39. Bagley C, Young L. Juvenile prostitution and child sexual abuse: A controlled study. Can J Commun Ment Health 1987; 6(1):5-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7870/cjcmh-1987-0001
40. Wijkman M, Kleemans E. Female offenders of human trafficking and sexual exploitation. Crim Law Soc Chang 2019; 72; 53-72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-019-09840-x
41. INSERM Collective Expertise Centre. INSERM Collective Expert Reports [Internet]. Paris: Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale; 2000-. Conduct: Disorder in children and adolescents. 2005. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7133/
42. Sakuraba T, Matsui Y, Fukutomi M, Narita K, Kamise Y, Ui M, Kikusuima M. Background factors of amateur prostitution (“enjo-kousai”) in Japanese high-school girls. Jpn J Educ Psychol 2001; 49(2):167-174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5926/jjep1953.49.2_167
43. Schaffer B, DeBlassie RR. Adolescent prostitution. Adolescence 1984; 19(75):689-696.
44. Pasko L. Damaged daughters: The history of girls’ sexuality and the juvenile justice system. J Crim Law Criminol 2010; 100(3):1099-1130.
45. Lloyd M. Domestic violence and education: Examining the impact of domestic violence on young children, children, and young people and the potential role of schools. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2094. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02094
46. Goldenberg SM, Rangel G, Vera A, Patterson TL, Abramovitz D, Silverman JG, Raj A, Strathdee SA. Exploring the impact of underage sex work among female sex workers in two Mexico-US border cities. AIDS Behav 2012; 16(4):969-981. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0063-3
47. Kitchen P, Williams AM, Gallina M. Sense of belonging to local community in small-to-medium sized Canadian urban areas: A comparison of immigrant and Canadian-born residents. BMC Psychol 2015; 3(1):28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-015-0085-0
2. Kramer LA, Berg EC. A survival analysis of timing of entry into prostitution: The differential impact of race, educational level, and childhood/adolescent risk factors. Sociol Inq 2003; 73(4):511-528. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-682X.00069
3. Bilardi JE, Miller A, Hocking JS, Keogh L, Cummings R, Chen MY, Bradshaw CS, Fairley CK. The job satisfaction of female sex workers working in licensed brothels in Victoria, Australia. J Sex Med 2011; 8(1):116-122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.01967.x
4. Hong Y, Li XM. Behavioral studies of female sex workers in China:a literature review and recommendation for future research. AIDS Behav 2008; 12(4):623-636. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461- 007-9287-7
5. Johnston LG, Sabin K, Mai TH, Pham TH. Assessment of respondent driven sampling for recruiting female sex workers in two Vietnamese cities: Reaching the unseen sex worker. J Urban Health 2006; 83(6 Suppl):i16-i28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-006-9099-5
6. Dandona R, Dandona L, Kumar GA, Gutierrez JP, McPherson S, Samuels F, Bertozzi SM; ASCI FPP Study Team. Demography and sex work characteristics of female sex workers in India. BMC Int Health Hum Rights 2006; 6:5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-6-5
7. Onyeneho NG. HIV/AIDS risk factors and economic empowerment needs of female sex workers in Enugu Urban, Nigeria. Tanzan J Health Res 2009; 11(3):126-135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/thrb.v11i3.47698
8. Bucardo J, Semple SJ, Fraga-Vallejo M, Davila W, Patterson TL. A qualitative exploration of female sex work in Tijuana, Mexico. Arch Sex Behav 2004; 33(4):343-351. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028887.96873.f3
9. Devine A, Bowen K, Dzuvichu B, Rungsung R, Kermode M. Pathways to sex-work in Nagaland, India: Implications for HIV prevention and community mobilisation. AIDS Care 2010; 22(2):228-237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120903039869
10. Li Y, Detels R, Lin P, Fu X, Deng Z, Liu Y, Tan Y, Li J, Wu Z. Prevalence of HIV and STIs and associated risk factors among female sex workers in Guangdong Province, China. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 53(Suppl 1):S48-S53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181c7d72f
11. Karkov R. What drives a prostitute. ScienceNordic.(2012-03-08)[2015-04-20]. Last access: February 28, 2022. Available at: http://sciencenordic.com/what-drives-prostitute
12. Saggurti N, Verma RK, Halli SS, Swain SN, Singh R, Modugu HR, Ramarao S, Mahapatra B, Jain AK. Motivations for entry into sex work and HIV risk among mobile female sex workers in India. J Biosoc Sci 2011; 43(5):535-554. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932011000277
13. Weitzer R. Sociology of sex work. Ann Rev Sociol, 2009; 35(1):213-234. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120025
14. Rosen E, Venkatesh SA. A “perversion” of choice sex work offers just enough in Chicago’s urban ghetto. J Contem Ethnogr 2008; 37(4):417-441. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0891241607309879
15. Pueyo A, Maestre M. Linking energy access, gender and poverty: A review of the literature on productive uses of energy. Energy Res Soc Sci 2019; 53:170-181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.02.019
16. Onyeneho NG. HIV/AIDS risk factors and economic empowerment needs of female sex workers in Enugu Urban, Nigeria. Tanzan J Health Res 2009; 11(3):126-135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/thrb.v11i3.47698
17. Aral SO, St Lawrence JS, Tikhonova L, Safarova E, Parker KA, Shakarishvili A, Ryan CA. The social organization of commercial sex work in Moscow, Russia. Sex Transm Dis 2003; 30(1):39-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00007435-200301000-00009
18. Zhang L, Li X, Wang B, Shen Z, Zhou Y, Xu J, Tang Z, Stanton B. Violence, stigma and mental health among female sex workers in China: A structural equation modeling. Women Health 2017; 57(6):685-704. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2016.1186781
19. Ingabire MC, Mitchell K, Veldhuijzen N, Umulisa MM, Nyinawabega J, Kestelyn E, Van Steijn M, Van De Wijgert J, Pool R. Joining and leaving sex work: experiences of women in Kigali, Rwanda. Cult Health Sex 2012; 14(9):1037-1047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2012.713120
20. Saggurti N, Sabarwal S, Verma R, Halli S, Jain A. Harsh realities:reasons for women’s involvement in sex work in India. J AIDS HIV Res 2011; 3(9):172-179.
21. O’Neil J, Orchard T, Swarankar RC, Blanchard JF, Gurav K, Moses S. Dhandha, dharma and disease: traditional sex work and HIV/AIDS in rural India. Soc Sci Med 2004; 59(4):851-860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.11.032
22. Blanchard JF, O’neil J, Ramesh BM, Bhattacharjee P, Orchard T, Moses S. Understanding the social and cultural contexts of female sex workers in Karnataka, India: implications for prevention of HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2005; 191(Suppl 1):S139-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/425273
23. Becker ML, Mishra S, Satyanarayana, Gurav K, Doshi M, Buzdugan R, Pise G, Halli S, Moses S, Avery L, Washington RG, Blanchard JF. Rates and determinants of HIV-attributable mortality among rural female sex workers in Northern Karnataka, India. Int J STD AIDS 2012; 23(1):36-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1258/ijsa.2011.011017
24. Hwang SL, Bedford O. Precursors and pathways to adolescent prostitution in Taiwan. J Sex Res 2003; 40(2):201-210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552181
25. Ghosh B. Trafficking in women and children in India: Nature, dimensions and strategies for prevention. Int J Hum Rig 2009; 13(5):716-738. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13642980802533109
26. George A, Sabarwal S. Sex trafficking, physical and sexual violence, and HIV risk among young female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, India. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2013; 120(2):119-123. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2012.08.019
27. Reed E, Erausquin JT, Groves AK, Salazar M, Biradavolu M, Blankenship KM. Client-perpetrated and husband-perpetrated violence among female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, India: HIV/STI risk across personal and work contexts. Sex Transm Infect 2016; 92(6):424-429. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2015-052162
28. Sarkar K, Bal B, Mukherjee R, Chakraborty S, Saha S, Ghosh A, Parsons S. Sex-trafficking, violence, negotiating skill, and HIV infection in brothel-based sex workers of eastern India, adjoining Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. J Health Popul Nutr 2008; 26(2):223-231.
29. Mamulwar M, Godbole S, Bembalkar S, Kamble P, Dulhani N, Yadav R, Kadu C, Kumar P, Lalikar S, Acharya S, Gangakhedkar R, Risbud A, Venkatesh S. Differing HIV vulnerability among female sex workers in a high HIV burden Indian state. PLoS One 2018; 13(2):e0192130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192130
30. Evens E, Lanham M, Santi K, Cooke J, Ridgeway K, Morales G, Parker C, Brennan C, de Bruin M, Desrosiers PC, Diaz X, Drago M, McLean R, Mendizabal M, Davis D, Hershow RB, Dayton R. Experiences of gender-based violence among female sex workers, men who have sex with men, and transgender women in Latin America and the Caribbean: a qualitative study to inform HIV programming. BMC Int Health Hum Rights 2019; 19(1):9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-019-0187-5
31. McClarty LM, Bhattacharjee P, Blanchard JF, Lorway RR, Ramanaik S, Mishra S, Isac S, Ramesh BM, Washington R, Moses S, Becker ML. Circumstances, experiences and processes surrounding women’s entry into sex work in India. Cult Health Sex 2014; 16(2):149-163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2013.845692
32. Gerassi L. A heated debate: Theoretical perspectives of sexual exploitation and sex work. J Sociol Soc Welf 2015; 42(4):79-100.
33. Flemming R. Quae Corpore Quaestum Facit: The sexual economy of female prostitution in the Roman Empire. J Roman Stud 1999; 89:38-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/300733
34. Cusick L. Youth prostitution: A literature review. Child Abuse Rev 2002; 11(4):230-251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/car.743
35. Dalla RL. Et Tú Brutè. A qualitative analysis of streetwalking prostitutes’ interpersonal support networks. J Fam Issues 2001; 22(8):1066-1085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/019251301022008006
36. Cobbina JE, Oselin SS. It’s not only for the money: An analysis of adolescent versus adult entry into street prostitution. Sociol Inq 2011; 81(3):310-332. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2011. 00375.x
37. Murphy LS. Understanding the social and economic contexts surrounding women engaged in street-level prostitution. Issues Ment Health Nurs 2010; 31(12):775-784. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2010.524345
38. Hossain M, Zimmerman C, Abas M, Light M, Watts C. The relationship of trauma to mental disorders among trafficked and sexually exploited girls and women. Am J Public Health 2010; 100(12):2442-2449. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.173229
39. Bagley C, Young L. Juvenile prostitution and child sexual abuse: A controlled study. Can J Commun Ment Health 1987; 6(1):5-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7870/cjcmh-1987-0001
40. Wijkman M, Kleemans E. Female offenders of human trafficking and sexual exploitation. Crim Law Soc Chang 2019; 72; 53-72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-019-09840-x
41. INSERM Collective Expertise Centre. INSERM Collective Expert Reports [Internet]. Paris: Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale; 2000-. Conduct: Disorder in children and adolescents. 2005. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7133/
42. Sakuraba T, Matsui Y, Fukutomi M, Narita K, Kamise Y, Ui M, Kikusuima M. Background factors of amateur prostitution (“enjo-kousai”) in Japanese high-school girls. Jpn J Educ Psychol 2001; 49(2):167-174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5926/jjep1953.49.2_167
43. Schaffer B, DeBlassie RR. Adolescent prostitution. Adolescence 1984; 19(75):689-696.
44. Pasko L. Damaged daughters: The history of girls’ sexuality and the juvenile justice system. J Crim Law Criminol 2010; 100(3):1099-1130.
45. Lloyd M. Domestic violence and education: Examining the impact of domestic violence on young children, children, and young people and the potential role of schools. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2094. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02094
46. Goldenberg SM, Rangel G, Vera A, Patterson TL, Abramovitz D, Silverman JG, Raj A, Strathdee SA. Exploring the impact of underage sex work among female sex workers in two Mexico-US border cities. AIDS Behav 2012; 16(4):969-981. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0063-3
47. Kitchen P, Williams AM, Gallina M. Sense of belonging to local community in small-to-medium sized Canadian urban areas: A comparison of immigrant and Canadian-born residents. BMC Psychol 2015; 3(1):28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-015-0085-0
How to Cite
Kim, H. D. (2022). A Causal Analysis of Women Engaging in Commercial Sex. Science Insights, 40(3), 451–456. https://doi.org/10.15354/si.22.re031
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