What to Teach and How to Teach: Artificial Intelligence Education in Primary and Secondary Schools
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Published
May 29, 2025
Abstract
With the growing impact of artificial intelligence (AI) technology on human society, many countries have introduced AI education into their basic education curricula to facilitate their young generation’s adaptation to future societal development. This study is a review of the current state of primary and secondary AI education from the standpoints of “what to teach” and “how to teach” and finds that AI literacy development is the paramount objective despite the differences in AI education purposes among various countries; that current AI curriculum content primarily includes basic AI knowledge and techniques, AI applications, and ethics of AI; and that a wide variety of pedagogical approaches have been adopted in AI education, including lecture, group study, project-based learning, and activity-based learning. The article also summarizes common AI teaching tools in use. Issues with current AI education are discussed as well.
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Keywords
Artificial Intelligence Education, Curriculum Content, Training Objective, Pedagogical Approach, Primary and Secondary School
Supporting Agencies
No funding sources declared.
References
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Chiu, T. K. (2021). A holistic approach to the design of artificial intelligence (AI) education for K-12 schools. TechTrends, 65(5), 796-807. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-021-00637-1
Chiu, T. K., Meng, H., Chai, C. S., King, I., Wong, S., & Yam, Y. (2021). Creation and evaluation of a pretertiary artificial intelligence (AI) curriculum. IEEE Transactions on Education, 65(1), 30-39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TE.2021.3085878
Deng, W., Huang, X., Liu, Q., & Wang, Z. (2021, December). Curriculum design of artificial intelligence in middle school-taking posture recognition as an example. In 2021 tenth international conference of educational innovation through technology (EITT) (pp. 310-315). IEEE. DOI: https://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/EITT53287.2021.00067
Druga, S., Otero, N., & Ko, A. J. (2022). The landscape of teaching resources for AI education. In Proceedings of the 27th ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education Vol. 1 (pp. 96-102). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3502718.3524782
Eguchi, A., Okada, H., & Muto, Y. (2021). Contextualizing AI education for K-12 students to enhance their learning of AI literacy through culturally responsive approaches. KI-Künstliche Intelligenz, 35(2), 153-161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13218-021-00737-3
Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106-116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053002003
Jiang, S., Nocera, A., Tatar, C., Yoder, M. M., Chao, J., Wiedemann, K., ... & Rosé, C. P. (2022). An empirical analysis of high school students' practices of modelling with unstructured data. British Journal of Educational Technology, 53(5), 1114-1133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13253
Lan, G., Xiao, Q., Song, F., Du, S., Ding, L., & Cai, F. (2025). Global perspectives on the teacher artificial intelligence literacy framework: Content architecture, practical examples, and application strategies. Open Education Research, 31(02), 55-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2025.02.006.
Lee, S. J., & Kwon, K. (2024). A systematic review of AI education in K-12 classrooms from 2018 to 2023: Topics, strategies, and learning outcomes. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 6, 100211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100211
Li, L. (2022). A literature review of AI education for K-12. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 13(3).
Lou, Y., Li, Y., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Ma, J., & Hu, M. (2022). A development framework and implementation strategies for basic artificial intelligence curricula: An analysis of the UNESCO’s K-12 AI Curricula: A Mapping of Government-Endorsed AI Curricula.
Journal of Distance Education, 40(03), 3-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15881/j.cnki.cn33-1304/g4.2022.03.009
Lu, Y., Tang, X., Song, J., & Yu, S. (2021). Primary and secondary artificial intelligence education in the age of intelligence: Overarching objectives and core components. Chinese Journal of Distance Education, 2021(05), 22-31+77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2021.05.003.
Ministry of Education of China (2024). The Circular on Strengthening Artificial Intelligence Education in Primary and Secondary Schools. Available at: https://www.gov.cn/lianbo/bumen/202412/content_6990729.htm
Ng, D. T. K., Su, J., Leung, J. K. L., & Chu, S. K. W. (2024). Artificial intelligence (AI) literacy education in secondary schools: a review. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(10), 6204-6224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2255228
Oyelere, S. S., Sanusi, I. T., Agbo, F. J., Oyelere, A. S., Omidiora, J. O., Adewumi, A. E., & Ogbebor, C. (2022). Artificial intelligence in African schools: Towards a contextualized approach. In 2022 IEEE global engineering education conference (EDUCON) (pp. 1577-1582). IEEE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON52537.2022.9766550.
Papert, S. (1993). Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas (2nd ed.). Basic Books.
Primary and Secondary AI Curriculum Research Group & Jiang, B. (2023). Primary and Secondary Artificial Intelligence Curriculum Guidelines. Journal of East China Normal University (Education Science Edition), 41(03), 121-134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.03.013
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Steinbauer, G., Kandlhofer, M., Chklovski, T., Heintz, F., & Koenig, S. (2021). A differentiated discussion about AI education K-12. KI-Künstliche Intelligenz, 35(2), 131-137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13218-021-00724-8
Su, J., Guo, K., Chen, X., & Chu, S. K. W. (2024). Teaching artificial intelligence in K–12 classrooms: a scoping review. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(9), 5207-5226. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2212706
Toivonen, T., Jormanainen, I., Kahila, J., Tedre, M., Valtonen, T., & Vartiainen, H. (2020, July). Co-designing machine learning apps in K–12 with primary school children. In 2020 IEEE 20th international conference on advanced learning technologies (ICALT) (pp. 308-310). IEEE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICALT49669.2020.00099
Touretzky, D., Gardner-McCune, C., Breazeal, C., Martin, F., & Seehorn, D. (2019). A year in K-12 AI education. AI Magazine, 40(4), 88-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v40i4.5289
UNESCO (2019). Beijing Consensus on Artificial Intelligence and Education. In International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education, Planning Education in the AI Era: Lead the Leap. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368303
UNESCO (2022). K-12 AI curricula: a mapping of government-endorsed AI curricula. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54675/ELYF6010
Wang, T. (2024). Design and implementation of primary and secondary artificial intelligence curricula. Modern Educational Technology, 34(12), 95-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-8097.2024.12.010.
Wei, Y. (2025). Primary and Secondary Artificial Intelligence Education in China and Other Countries. Primary and Secondary School Management, 2025(04), 14-17. Available at: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=PCBa4GjaZh9_wSIPsHwz2txAEflTfo5NMW3m_E1uhwtswzX5nGXXnHlouS3_xwzRBuGB0epaXZo4iuxFVOjQcO4NwtpNMV4Mw5w17-zCn80eDUDnWyxs4iv0UxEo4LUOytrTa3BT9j45FmmHv9Z4aeE4GSdkXfcX8ckpod3JwI00LsPf6wm1ww==&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS
Xia, Q., Chiu, T. K. F., Lee, M., Sanusi, I. T., Dai, Y., & Chai, C. S. (2022). A self-determination theory (SDT) design approach for inclusive and diverse artificial intelligence (AI) education. Computers & Education, 189, 104582. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104582
Yue, M., Jong, M. S. Y., & Dai, Y. (2022). Pedagogical design of K-12 artificial intelligence education: A systematic review. Sustainability, 14(23), 15620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315620
Zhong, B. & Liu, X. (2021). The development of interdisciplinary creativity in students: Research basis and a revised model. Chinese Journal of Distance Education, 2021(10), 29-38+77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2021.10.004.
Zhong, B. & Liu, X. (2022). What to teach and how to teach in artificial intelligence education - with a discussion on the relationships and differences between relevant concepts. Education Sciences in China, 5(03), 22-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13527/j.cnki.educ.sci.china.2022.03.004.
Cao, X., Luo, J., He, T., Li, C., & Zeng, Y. (2025). An integrated artificial intelligence education system: Significance, challenges, and construction pathways. e-Education Research, 46(03), 21-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13811/j.cnki.eer.2025.03.003.
Chiu, T. K. (2021). A holistic approach to the design of artificial intelligence (AI) education for K-12 schools. TechTrends, 65(5), 796-807. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-021-00637-1
Chiu, T. K., Meng, H., Chai, C. S., King, I., Wong, S., & Yam, Y. (2021). Creation and evaluation of a pretertiary artificial intelligence (AI) curriculum. IEEE Transactions on Education, 65(1), 30-39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TE.2021.3085878
Deng, W., Huang, X., Liu, Q., & Wang, Z. (2021, December). Curriculum design of artificial intelligence in middle school-taking posture recognition as an example. In 2021 tenth international conference of educational innovation through technology (EITT) (pp. 310-315). IEEE. DOI: https://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/EITT53287.2021.00067
Druga, S., Otero, N., & Ko, A. J. (2022). The landscape of teaching resources for AI education. In Proceedings of the 27th ACM Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education Vol. 1 (pp. 96-102). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3502718.3524782
Eguchi, A., Okada, H., & Muto, Y. (2021). Contextualizing AI education for K-12 students to enhance their learning of AI literacy through culturally responsive approaches. KI-Künstliche Intelligenz, 35(2), 153-161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13218-021-00737-3
Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106-116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053002003
Jiang, S., Nocera, A., Tatar, C., Yoder, M. M., Chao, J., Wiedemann, K., ... & Rosé, C. P. (2022). An empirical analysis of high school students' practices of modelling with unstructured data. British Journal of Educational Technology, 53(5), 1114-1133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13253
Lan, G., Xiao, Q., Song, F., Du, S., Ding, L., & Cai, F. (2025). Global perspectives on the teacher artificial intelligence literacy framework: Content architecture, practical examples, and application strategies. Open Education Research, 31(02), 55-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2025.02.006.
Lee, S. J., & Kwon, K. (2024). A systematic review of AI education in K-12 classrooms from 2018 to 2023: Topics, strategies, and learning outcomes. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 6, 100211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100211
Li, L. (2022). A literature review of AI education for K-12. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 13(3).
Lou, Y., Li, Y., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Ma, J., & Hu, M. (2022). A development framework and implementation strategies for basic artificial intelligence curricula: An analysis of the UNESCO’s K-12 AI Curricula: A Mapping of Government-Endorsed AI Curricula.
Journal of Distance Education, 40(03), 3-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15881/j.cnki.cn33-1304/g4.2022.03.009
Lu, Y., Tang, X., Song, J., & Yu, S. (2021). Primary and secondary artificial intelligence education in the age of intelligence: Overarching objectives and core components. Chinese Journal of Distance Education, 2021(05), 22-31+77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2021.05.003.
Ministry of Education of China (2024). The Circular on Strengthening Artificial Intelligence Education in Primary and Secondary Schools. Available at: https://www.gov.cn/lianbo/bumen/202412/content_6990729.htm
Ng, D. T. K., Su, J., Leung, J. K. L., & Chu, S. K. W. (2024). Artificial intelligence (AI) literacy education in secondary schools: a review. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(10), 6204-6224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2255228
Oyelere, S. S., Sanusi, I. T., Agbo, F. J., Oyelere, A. S., Omidiora, J. O., Adewumi, A. E., & Ogbebor, C. (2022). Artificial intelligence in African schools: Towards a contextualized approach. In 2022 IEEE global engineering education conference (EDUCON) (pp. 1577-1582). IEEE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON52537.2022.9766550.
Papert, S. (1993). Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas (2nd ed.). Basic Books.
Primary and Secondary AI Curriculum Research Group & Jiang, B. (2023). Primary and Secondary Artificial Intelligence Curriculum Guidelines. Journal of East China Normal University (Education Science Edition), 41(03), 121-134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2023.03.013
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Steinbauer, G., Kandlhofer, M., Chklovski, T., Heintz, F., & Koenig, S. (2021). A differentiated discussion about AI education K-12. KI-Künstliche Intelligenz, 35(2), 131-137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13218-021-00724-8
Su, J., Guo, K., Chen, X., & Chu, S. K. W. (2024). Teaching artificial intelligence in K–12 classrooms: a scoping review. Interactive Learning Environments, 32(9), 5207-5226. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2023.2212706
Toivonen, T., Jormanainen, I., Kahila, J., Tedre, M., Valtonen, T., & Vartiainen, H. (2020, July). Co-designing machine learning apps in K–12 with primary school children. In 2020 IEEE 20th international conference on advanced learning technologies (ICALT) (pp. 308-310). IEEE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICALT49669.2020.00099
Touretzky, D., Gardner-McCune, C., Breazeal, C., Martin, F., & Seehorn, D. (2019). A year in K-12 AI education. AI Magazine, 40(4), 88-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v40i4.5289
UNESCO (2019). Beijing Consensus on Artificial Intelligence and Education. In International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education, Planning Education in the AI Era: Lead the Leap. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368303
UNESCO (2022). K-12 AI curricula: a mapping of government-endorsed AI curricula. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54675/ELYF6010
Wang, T. (2024). Design and implementation of primary and secondary artificial intelligence curricula. Modern Educational Technology, 34(12), 95-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-8097.2024.12.010.
Wei, Y. (2025). Primary and Secondary Artificial Intelligence Education in China and Other Countries. Primary and Secondary School Management, 2025(04), 14-17. Available at: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=PCBa4GjaZh9_wSIPsHwz2txAEflTfo5NMW3m_E1uhwtswzX5nGXXnHlouS3_xwzRBuGB0epaXZo4iuxFVOjQcO4NwtpNMV4Mw5w17-zCn80eDUDnWyxs4iv0UxEo4LUOytrTa3BT9j45FmmHv9Z4aeE4GSdkXfcX8ckpod3JwI00LsPf6wm1ww==&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS
Xia, Q., Chiu, T. K. F., Lee, M., Sanusi, I. T., Dai, Y., & Chai, C. S. (2022). A self-determination theory (SDT) design approach for inclusive and diverse artificial intelligence (AI) education. Computers & Education, 189, 104582. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104582
Yue, M., Jong, M. S. Y., & Dai, Y. (2022). Pedagogical design of K-12 artificial intelligence education: A systematic review. Sustainability, 14(23), 15620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315620
Zhong, B. & Liu, X. (2021). The development of interdisciplinary creativity in students: Research basis and a revised model. Chinese Journal of Distance Education, 2021(10), 29-38+77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.2021.10.004.
Zhong, B. & Liu, X. (2022). What to teach and how to teach in artificial intelligence education - with a discussion on the relationships and differences between relevant concepts. Education Sciences in China, 5(03), 22-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13527/j.cnki.educ.sci.china.2022.03.004.
How to Cite
Xia, X. (2025). What to Teach and How to Teach: Artificial Intelligence Education in Primary and Secondary Schools. Science Insights Education Frontiers, 28(1), 4613–4626. https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.25.re523
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