A Review of Educational Agents: Definitions, Features, Roles and Development Trends
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Jun 30, 2025
Abstract
The educational agent is a typical product of the integration of technology and education. As a result of the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence technology, its functionality and applicability have significantly improved, garnering extensive attention in the educational world. As a computer-generated virtual agent, it can perceive the educational environment and autonomously respond to the learners' needs. This article reviews the definitions, features, roles, and development trends of educational agents to find that being educational, autonomous, proactive, and socially interactive is their inherent features; that they can play multiple roles, such as the instructor, learning companion, and evaluator, to serve diverse educational needs; and that future development focuses in this area includes enhancing emotional interaction capabilities of agents, strengthening their integration with virtual reality and augmented reality, and transitioning from single-agent to multi-agent systems.
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Keywords
Agent, Educational Agent, Educational Technology
References
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Carayannopoulos, S. (2018). Using chatbots to aid transition. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 35(2), 118–129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-10-2017-0097/full/html
Dai, L., Jung, M. M., Postma, M., & Louwerse, M. M. (2022). A systematic review of pedagogical agent research: Similarities, differences and unexplored aspects. Computers & Education, 190, 104607. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104607
Daradoumis, T., & Arguedas, M. (2020). Cultivating students’ reflective learning in metacognitive activities through an affective pedagogical agent. Educational Technology & Society, 23(2), 19-31. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26921131
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Duffy, M. C., & Azevedo, R. (2015). Motivation matters: Interactions between achievement goals and agent scaffolding for self-regulated learning within an intelligent tutoring system. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 338-348. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.041
Franklin, S., Graesser, A. (1997). Is It an agent, or just a program?: A taxonomy for autonomous agents. In: Müller, J.P., Wooldridge, M.J., Jennings, N.R. (eds) Intelligent Agents III Agent Theories, Architectures, and Languages. ATAL 1996. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 1193. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BFb0013570
Graesser, A. C. (2016). Conversations with AutoTutor help students learn. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 124-132. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0086-4
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Huang, C., Zhong, Y., Wang, X., Han, Z., & Wei, T. (2025). From single-agent to multi-agent systems: Design and empirical research on incentive-driven learning activities supported by large model agents. Journal of East China Normal University (Educational Sciences), 43(05), 44-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2025.05.004.
Johnson, W. L., & Lester, J. C. (2016). Face-to-face interaction with pedagogical agents, twenty years later. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 25-36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0065-9
Johnson, W. L., & Lester, J. C. (2018). Pedagogical agents: back to the future. AI Magazine, 39(2), 33-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v39i2.2793
Johnson, A. M., Ozogul, G., Moreno, R., & Reisslein, M. (2013). Pedagogical agent signaling of multiple visual engineering representations: The case of the young female agent. Journal of Engineering Education, 102(2), 319-337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20009
Johnson, W. L., Rickel, J. W., & Lester, J. C. (2000). Animated pedagogical agents: Face-to-face interaction in interactive learning environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 11(1), 47-78.
Kim, Y., & Baylor, A. L. (2016). Research-based design of pedagogical agent roles: A review, progress, and recommendations. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 160-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0055-y
Kim, Y., & Wei, Q. (2011). The impact of learner attributes and learner choice in an agent-based environment. Computers & Education, 56(2), 505-514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.09.016
Kort, B., Reilly, R., & Picard, R. W. (2001). An affective model of interplay between emotions and learning: Reengineering educational pedagogy-building a learning companion. In Proceedings IEEE international conference on advanced learning technologies (pp. 43-46). IEEE.
Kuk, K., Milentijević, I., Rančić, D., & Spalević, P. (2012). Pedagogical agent in multimedia interactive modules for learning–mimle. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(9), 8051-8058. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.01.138
Lee, Y. C., & Fu, W. T. (2019). Supporting peer assessment in education with conversational agents. Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces: Companion.
Li, D. Y. (2018). Rudiments of Artificial Intelligence. Beijing, China: Science Press.
Liu, Q., Ba, S., Luo, L., Zhang, Y., & Wu, L. (2019). A review of the roles of educational agents in cognitive learning. Journal of Distance Education, 37(05), 35-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15881/j.cnki.cn33-1304/g4.2019.05.005.
Liu, S., Liu, Z., Duan, H., Su, Z., & Peng, J. (2025). The application of large model-based educational multi-agent systems: Technical architecture, development status, practical paths, and prospects. Journal of Distance Education, 43(01), 33-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15881/j.cnki.cn33-1304/g4.2025.01.004.
Martha, A. S. D., & Santoso, H. B. (2019). The design and impact of the pedagogical agent: A systematic literature review. Journal of Educators Online, 16(1), n1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.9743/jeo.2019.16.1.8
Maryadi, J. A., Santoso, H., & Isa, Y. K. (2017, November). Development of Personalized Pedagogical Agent for Student-Centered e-Learning Environment. In 2017 7th World Engineering Education Forum (WEEF) (pp. 309-314). IEEE.
Sakellariou, S., Molohidis, A., & Hatzikraniotis, E. (2024). On the Effectiveness of Pedagogical Agents. International Journal of Teaching and Learning Sciences: IJTLS-102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47991/2024/IJTLS-102
Schroeder, N. L., & Gotch, C. M. (2015). Persisting issues in pedagogical agent research. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 53(2), 183-204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633115597625
Septiana, A. I., Mutijarsa, K., Putro, B. L., & Rosmansyah, Y. (2024). Emotion-Related Pedagogical Agent: A Systematic Literature Review. IEEE Access, 12, 36645–36656. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3374376
Shen, S. & Zhu, Z. (2023). ChatGPT-like products: Inherent mechanisms and their impacts on learning assessment. China Distance Education, 43(04), 8-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.20230223.001.
Sikström, P., Valentini, C., Sivunen, A., & Kärkkäinen, T. (2022). How pedagogical agents communicate with students: A two-phase systematic review. Computers & Education, 188, 104564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104564
Tegos, S., & Demetriadis, S. (2017). Conversational agents improve peer learning through building on prior knowledge. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 20(1), 99-111. http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.20.1.99
Wang, X., Qiao, Y., Wang, H., Cheng, Y., & Li, H. (2022). How do educational agents affect learners' emotions and outcomes? A meta-analysis based on 39 experimental or quasi-experimental studies. Modern Educational Technology, 32(08), 59-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-8097.2022.08.007
Ward, W., Cole, R., Bola˜nos, D., Buchenroth-Martin, C., Svirsky, E., & Weston, T. (2013). My science tutor: A conversational multimedia virtual tutor. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(4), 1115–1125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031589
Wu, Y., Jiang, Y., Chen, Y., & Zhang, W. (2024). Multi-agent systems powered by large language models: Technological paths, educational applications, and prospects. Open Education Research, 30(05), 63-75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2024.05.007.
Xu, Z., Liu, Z., Dang, T., & Kong, X. (2021). The evolution, application, and prospects of educational agents. e-Education Research, 42(11), 20-26+33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13811/j.cnki.eer.2021.11.003.
Yusuf, H., Money, A., & Daylamani-Zad, D. (2025). Pedagogical AI conversational agents in higher education: a conceptual framework and survey of the state of the art. Educational Technology Research and Development, 1-60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-025-10447-4
Zhang, S., Jaldi, C. D., Schroeder, N. L., López, A. A., Gladstone, J. R., & Heidig, S. (2024). Pedagogical agent design for K-12 education: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 105165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105165
Zhao, G., Ailiya, & Shen, Z. (2012). Learning-by-teaching: Designing teachable agents with intrinsic motivation. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 15(4), 62-74. http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.15.4.62
Al-Kaisi, A., Arkhangelskaya, A., Rudenko-Morgun, O., & Lopanova, E. (2020). Pedagogical agents in teaching language: types and implementation opportunities. IJAEDU-International E-Journal of Advances in Education, 5(15), 275-285. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18768/ijaedu.593875
Baylor, A. L. (2009). Promoting motivation with virtual agents and avatars: role of visual presence and appearance. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3559-3565. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0148
Baylor, A. L., & Kim, Y. (2005). Simulating instructional roles through pedagogical agents. International Journal of Artificial intelligence in education, 15(2), 95-115.
Carayannopoulos, S. (2018). Using chatbots to aid transition. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 35(2), 118–129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-10-2017-0097/full/html
Dai, L., Jung, M. M., Postma, M., & Louwerse, M. M. (2022). A systematic review of pedagogical agent research: Similarities, differences and unexplored aspects. Computers & Education, 190, 104607. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104607
Daradoumis, T., & Arguedas, M. (2020). Cultivating students’ reflective learning in metacognitive activities through an affective pedagogical agent. Educational Technology & Society, 23(2), 19-31. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26921131
Dincer, S., & Doğanay, A. (2015). The impact of pedagogical agent on learners’ motivation and academic success. Practice and Theory in Systems of Education, 10(4), 329-348. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/ptse-2015-0032
Duffy, M. C., & Azevedo, R. (2015). Motivation matters: Interactions between achievement goals and agent scaffolding for self-regulated learning within an intelligent tutoring system. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 338-348. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.041
Franklin, S., Graesser, A. (1997). Is It an agent, or just a program?: A taxonomy for autonomous agents. In: Müller, J.P., Wooldridge, M.J., Jennings, N.R. (eds) Intelligent Agents III Agent Theories, Architectures, and Languages. ATAL 1996. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 1193. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BFb0013570
Graesser, A. C. (2016). Conversations with AutoTutor help students learn. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 124-132. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0086-4
Gu, X., Wan, P., & Zhu, Z. (2024). Will the metaverse be a flash in the pan? The phenomenon-level intelligence technology and its educational implications. Modern Educational Technology, 34 (01), 26-34. Available at: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=YUZAqE0WVu7xdzhEdsbgqnEB40ft6d_53UZE7yFSC4TZJHLmurT-4JbKMdxA3J9Mt-VXZhtyl_Lr4EVZKMaBBts7q8H7OhCfB3nU5ZgrgieKA4EihOfOL9jUbWoQwBbwZDU4J9lhhRmliKnzRgR1AozEmzOLFm3SvIFV4m0aN9GnZ_6dUvsVkA==&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=CHS
Gu, X. & Hao, X. (2025). The Monkey King’s hairs: Multi-agent systems that are reshaping learning technology. Journal of East China Normal University (Educational Sciences), 43(5), 16–29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2025.05.002
Gunadi, D., Sanjaya, R., & Harnadi, B. (2019). Examining the acceptance of virtual assistant-Vanika for university students. In 2019 3rd International Conference on Informatics and Computational Sciences (ICICoS) (pp. 1-4). IEEE.
Hayes-Roth, B. (1995). An architecture for adaptive intelligent systems. Artificial intelligence, 72(1-2), 329-365. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-3702(94)00004-K
He, K. (2017). New developments in pedagogical agents and adaptive learning technologies: Reflections on the Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (Fourth Edition) (VI). Open Education Research, 23(05),11-20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2017.05.002.
Huang, C., Zhong, Y., Wang, X., Han, Z., & Wei, T. (2025). From single-agent to multi-agent systems: Design and empirical research on incentive-driven learning activities supported by large model agents. Journal of East China Normal University (Educational Sciences), 43(05), 44-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2025.05.004.
Johnson, W. L., & Lester, J. C. (2016). Face-to-face interaction with pedagogical agents, twenty years later. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 25-36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0065-9
Johnson, W. L., & Lester, J. C. (2018). Pedagogical agents: back to the future. AI Magazine, 39(2), 33-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v39i2.2793
Johnson, A. M., Ozogul, G., Moreno, R., & Reisslein, M. (2013). Pedagogical agent signaling of multiple visual engineering representations: The case of the young female agent. Journal of Engineering Education, 102(2), 319-337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20009
Johnson, W. L., Rickel, J. W., & Lester, J. C. (2000). Animated pedagogical agents: Face-to-face interaction in interactive learning environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 11(1), 47-78.
Kim, Y., & Baylor, A. L. (2016). Research-based design of pedagogical agent roles: A review, progress, and recommendations. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26, 160-169. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-015-0055-y
Kim, Y., & Wei, Q. (2011). The impact of learner attributes and learner choice in an agent-based environment. Computers & Education, 56(2), 505-514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.09.016
Kort, B., Reilly, R., & Picard, R. W. (2001). An affective model of interplay between emotions and learning: Reengineering educational pedagogy-building a learning companion. In Proceedings IEEE international conference on advanced learning technologies (pp. 43-46). IEEE.
Kuk, K., Milentijević, I., Rančić, D., & Spalević, P. (2012). Pedagogical agent in multimedia interactive modules for learning–mimle. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(9), 8051-8058. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.01.138
Lee, Y. C., & Fu, W. T. (2019). Supporting peer assessment in education with conversational agents. Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces: Companion.
Li, D. Y. (2018). Rudiments of Artificial Intelligence. Beijing, China: Science Press.
Liu, Q., Ba, S., Luo, L., Zhang, Y., & Wu, L. (2019). A review of the roles of educational agents in cognitive learning. Journal of Distance Education, 37(05), 35-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15881/j.cnki.cn33-1304/g4.2019.05.005.
Liu, S., Liu, Z., Duan, H., Su, Z., & Peng, J. (2025). The application of large model-based educational multi-agent systems: Technical architecture, development status, practical paths, and prospects. Journal of Distance Education, 43(01), 33-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15881/j.cnki.cn33-1304/g4.2025.01.004.
Martha, A. S. D., & Santoso, H. B. (2019). The design and impact of the pedagogical agent: A systematic literature review. Journal of Educators Online, 16(1), n1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.9743/jeo.2019.16.1.8
Maryadi, J. A., Santoso, H., & Isa, Y. K. (2017, November). Development of Personalized Pedagogical Agent for Student-Centered e-Learning Environment. In 2017 7th World Engineering Education Forum (WEEF) (pp. 309-314). IEEE.
Sakellariou, S., Molohidis, A., & Hatzikraniotis, E. (2024). On the Effectiveness of Pedagogical Agents. International Journal of Teaching and Learning Sciences: IJTLS-102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47991/2024/IJTLS-102
Schroeder, N. L., & Gotch, C. M. (2015). Persisting issues in pedagogical agent research. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 53(2), 183-204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633115597625
Septiana, A. I., Mutijarsa, K., Putro, B. L., & Rosmansyah, Y. (2024). Emotion-Related Pedagogical Agent: A Systematic Literature Review. IEEE Access, 12, 36645–36656. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3374376
Shen, S. & Zhu, Z. (2023). ChatGPT-like products: Inherent mechanisms and their impacts on learning assessment. China Distance Education, 43(04), 8-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13541/j.cnki.chinade.20230223.001.
Sikström, P., Valentini, C., Sivunen, A., & Kärkkäinen, T. (2022). How pedagogical agents communicate with students: A two-phase systematic review. Computers & Education, 188, 104564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104564
Tegos, S., & Demetriadis, S. (2017). Conversational agents improve peer learning through building on prior knowledge. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 20(1), 99-111. http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.20.1.99
Wang, X., Qiao, Y., Wang, H., Cheng, Y., & Li, H. (2022). How do educational agents affect learners' emotions and outcomes? A meta-analysis based on 39 experimental or quasi-experimental studies. Modern Educational Technology, 32(08), 59-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-8097.2022.08.007
Ward, W., Cole, R., Bola˜nos, D., Buchenroth-Martin, C., Svirsky, E., & Weston, T. (2013). My science tutor: A conversational multimedia virtual tutor. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(4), 1115–1125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031589
Wu, Y., Jiang, Y., Chen, Y., & Zhang, W. (2024). Multi-agent systems powered by large language models: Technological paths, educational applications, and prospects. Open Education Research, 30(05), 63-75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2024.05.007.
Xu, Z., Liu, Z., Dang, T., & Kong, X. (2021). The evolution, application, and prospects of educational agents. e-Education Research, 42(11), 20-26+33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13811/j.cnki.eer.2021.11.003.
Yusuf, H., Money, A., & Daylamani-Zad, D. (2025). Pedagogical AI conversational agents in higher education: a conceptual framework and survey of the state of the art. Educational Technology Research and Development, 1-60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-025-10447-4
Zhang, S., Jaldi, C. D., Schroeder, N. L., López, A. A., Gladstone, J. R., & Heidig, S. (2024). Pedagogical agent design for K-12 education: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 105165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105165
Zhao, G., Ailiya, & Shen, Z. (2012). Learning-by-teaching: Designing teachable agents with intrinsic motivation. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 15(4), 62-74. http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.15.4.62
How to Cite
Zhou, L. (2025). A Review of Educational Agents: Definitions, Features, Roles and Development Trends. Science Insights Education Frontiers, 28(2), 4675–4688. https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.25.re552
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